Solon language
| Solon | |
|---|---|
| Suolun, Solong, Sulong, Haila’er Evenki[1][2] | |
| Native to | China |
| Region | Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang and Xinjiang |
| Ethnicity | 20,000-25,000 Solons[3] |
Native speakers | 20,000 (2020)[4] |
| Dialects |
|
| Latin, Mongolian | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | None (mis) |
| Glottolog | solo1263 |
| ELP | Solon |
| Linguasphere | 44-CAA-bc |
 Map of the Tungusic languages.
Solon | |
 Solon is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. [5] | |
Solon is a language or dialect descended from Tungusic that was spoken by the Solons in China. Solon is a Manchurian Evenki dialect, which was created due to the settlement of Solons in Hulunbuir during the 17th century.[6][7] The Solon language is mainly concentrated in the Ewenki Autonomous Banner in Inner Mongolia.[8]
Name
[edit source]The name "Solon" was originally used for Evenki and Dagur speakers from the Amur valley. After migrations in the 16th-17th century from multiple ethnic groups, the name Solon was used for modern Solon, Dagur and Oroqen speakers. After being moved to Hulunbuir in 1732, the modern Solons and Solon dialect were designated and distinguished from other ethnic groups.[7]
Solons were also called Ongkors, which has been changed to designate Solons from Xinjiang and their dialect.[7] The Chinese name for the Solon language is the Haila’er (Hailar) dialect of Evenki.[2]
Dialects
[edit source]The dialects of Solon are Amur, Hulun Buir (Huihe), Morigele, Nonni (Nenjiang) and Ongkor Solon.[9] The Ongkor Solon dialect has been extinct since the 1990s.[10] There is also a Hailar variety of Solon that is spoken in between Hui River and the Imin River basin.[11] The Hailar dialect has been significantly influenced by the Mongolic, while the Nonni dialect has been significantly influenced by Chinese and Dagur.[11]
Classification
[edit source]According to Juha Janhunen's research, the numerous dialects of the Ewenki language can be divided into two major groups: those of the Solons (which he labels "Solon Ewenki") and those of the Ewenki of Siberia (as well as the Oroqen and the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" of China), which he calls "Siberian Evenki". Solon is mutually unintelligable with the other Evenki dialects.[2] The Ewenki dialects of the bilingual Khamnigan show features characteristic of both "Manchurian" and "Siberian" groups, as well as peculiar Khamnigan innovations.[12]
The Solon being closely associated with the Dagur, many (around half of them, according to Janhunen's field research in the 1990s) Solon people are bilingual in the Dagur.[13][2][14] During the Qing Empire, many Solon (as well as members of many other native groups of Manchuria) were able to speak Manchu,[15] while in modern China Mandarin Chinese is universally taught.
Solon has also been classified as a separate language, with Janhunen classifying it as a part of the Ewenic languages.[16]
Malcolm Ross proposed the term "lect" in 2001 to not distinguish between Solon being a dialect or language due to the difficulty of its classification.[3]
Status
[edit source]According to Juha Janhunen and Toshiro Tsumagari, the language currently has approximately 15,000 speakers.[17][8] In 2010, Christopher Moseley stated that there were 10,000 speakers.[14][18] However, Nargil states that in the 2020 census, there are 20,000 Solon speakers, 10,000 of which come from the Ewenki Autonomous Banner.[4]
According to UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, Solon is classified as a language definitely endangered.[5] Juha Janhunen and Toshiro Tsumagari classified Solon as endangered, with the language being nearly extinct locally.[8]
In rural Solon areas, Solon children are able to speak Solon fluently, Han Chinese and Mongols living in these Solon rural regions learn basic sentences of Solon to talk to Solons.[19]
Phonology
[edit source]Consonants
[edit source]Tsumagari states there are 17 consonant phonemes in the Solon language, which are p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n, c, [쥰], j, [쥵], s, x, l, r, w, y and [j]. The /h/ phoneme is also sometimes considered a separate phoneme, but is also interpreted as an allophone of s.[20] However, Kazama states there are 19 consonant phonemes, that are p, t, č, k, b, d, ǰ, g, m, n, ň, ŋ, s, š, x, w, j, r and l.[21]
Vowels
[edit source]There are 12 vowel phonemes in the Solon language, which are H, i, ə, ɵ, u, S, ι, a, o, u, e and ee.[21]
Syllable structure
[edit source]The syllable structure of Solon is shown as (C)V(V)(C).[20][21]
Morphology
[edit source]Morphological process
[edit source]Solon's morphological process has agglutinative suffixes, which is shown in the xaxraa-sül-nii-s (of your chickens). Regressive assimilation has also occurred in Solon, resulting in alterations in the stem's final consonant, which is shown in is-ca being used for has reached over it-caa.[22]
Nouns
[edit source]Declension
[edit source]Solon has 13 different cases that includes an established genitive and a unmarked nominative form that serves as a stem of oblique cases. Some case-endings in Solon also include allomorphs which include the stem-final phonemic structure (-V♯/-C♯). The following list includes the Solon words beye (man) and morin (horse) that comes from Toshiro Tsumagari.[22]
| Case | beye (man) | morin (horse) |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | beye | morin |
| Genitive | beye-nii | morin-ii |
| Accusative | beye-we | morin-ba |
| Indefinite Accusative | beye-ye | morin-a |
| Dative | beye-dii | morin-du |
| Locative | beye-lee | morin-dulaa |
| Directive | beye-txii | morin-tixii |
| Prolative | beye-lii | morin-dulii |
| Ablative | beye-diixi | morin-duxi |
| Elative | beye-giiji | morin-giiji |
| Delative | beye-leexi | morin-dulaaxi |
| Instrumental | beye-ji | morin-ji |
| Comitative | beye-gilii | morin-gilii |
Personal endings
[edit source]The following list includes the nominative form and other case forms in Solon with endings that indicate the person and their number, which comes from Toshiro Tsumagari.[23]
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -bi［-beye～-weye] | -mun～-mün (exclusive) -t(i) (inclusive) |
| 2nd person | -s(i) (～C-ci) | -sun～-sün (～C-cun～-cün) |
| 3rd person | -nin(i)［-ni | same as singular |
| Reflexive | ［-bi～-wi] | ［-beli～-weli］ |
Plural suffix
[edit source]Plurality in Solon is represented by the suffix -sal, which is attached to humans, animals and innaminate objects such as omolƐƐ -sal (grandsons), xolƐƐ -sal/＜xolƐƐn (snakes) and jolo-sol (stones). Unmarked forms are also used for referring to plural entities, which is more common when there is a quantitative adjective or it is preceded by a numeral such as ilan iite (three sons) and baraan xonin (many sheep). The suffix -sƐƐn is also added in Solon to place names or personal names and will mean "those who live somewhere" and "someoneʼs family, someone and others", which is shown by imin-sƐƐn (those who live in Imin) and ülji-sƐƐn (the Uljis). The noun ulur or possibly olor (people, fellow) has also been used in Solon for human nouns such as sawi ulur (students).[24]
Pronouns
[edit source]Personal pronouns
[edit source]Most of the personal pronouns in Solon are infected with alternative stems given in square brackets. The case-endings are similar to the noun case-endings, with the restructuring of actual occurrence for case-endings. For 3rd person pronouns, demonstrative pronouns such as eri/tari (this/that), usually employs plural forms ersel/tarsal～taccil (these/those) and elür/talur (＜eri/tari ulur) (these/those people). The original 3rd person pronoun nugan, with a plural form of nugan-sal, is rarely used and expresses politeness to the referent. This is shown in the following table, that comes from Toshiro Tsumagari.[24]
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | bii ［min-,accusative case minewe] | büü［mün-,accusative case münewe (exclusive) miti (inclusive) |
| 2nd person | sii ［sin-,accusative case sinewe] | süü［sün-,accusative case sünewe］ |
Reflexive pronouns
[edit source]The word meeni (oneself) is used for both numbers and has the stem meen-, a case-ending and a singular reflexive-ending. The word meeni has a dative case of meen-dü-wi, a instrumental case of meen-ji-wi and a accusative case of meen-bi, with the accusative case not having and any case-markings.[24]
Demonstrative pronouns
[edit source]The words eri (this) and tari (that) are used attributively and independently, with some case forms having both having reduced stems and derivative forms. The case forms with reduced stems are the dative case of e-dü/ta-du and the locative case of e-lee/ta-laa, while the derivative forms are eyye/tayya (this/that with a contemptuous tone), ennegen/tannagan (like this/that which is attributive) and ettü/tattu (in this/that way).[24]
Interrogative pronouns
[edit source]The following table includes interrogative pronouns from Toshiro Tsumagari:[25]
| English | Solon |
|---|---|
| what | ii, oxon |
| who | aawu, nii |
| which | iir, iggü |
| how many, how much | ooxi, adi |
The following table also includes interrogative pronouns from Toshiro Tsumagari which have some case forms and derivative forms serve as interrogative adverbs.[25]
| English | Solon |
|---|---|
| when | ooxidu |
| where | iilee |
| how | iittü |
| why, how | yoodon |
| what kind of | oondii |
Adjectives
[edit source]Conversion
[edit source]Adjectives in Solon are converted into nouns instead of having inflections and take number, case and personal markings, as shown by nisüxün-sel-we-ni (the small ones). Conversion or adding instumental case-endings could also change the adjectives function to be an adverb, as shown by sii ayaxan/ayaxan-ji aasin-caa-si-gii? (Did you sleep well?).[25]
Derivation
[edit source]In Solon, there is an adjective suffix -si, which means having/with, could and sometimes has a semantic change. The following table includes Solon's words with the suffix -si and in both Solon and English from Toshiro Tsumagari.[25]
| Words | Words with suffix -si |
|---|---|
| mügün (money) | mügün-si (having money, rich) |
| antan (taste) | antan-si (ʻtasteful, delicious, sweet) |
| naalla (hand) | naalla-si (crafty) |
The addition of different suffixes could change the semantic differences of words such as aya (good), which can be changed into aya-xan (rather good, healthy), aya-xaya (almost good) and aya-kkan (very good).[25]
Reduplication
[edit source]A partial reduplication is employed in Solon for an emphatic expression, almost exactly the way it is expressed in Mongolic and Turkic, while also being similar to Chinese Tungusic, but not Russian Tungusic. This is shown with ab aya (very good), xob xonnorin (coal-black) and nem nemikkün (very thin).[25]
Adjectives for colours also include another type of reduplication that combines with suffixation. This is shown in siŋarin (yellow), siŋa siŋa-ljaxun (deep yellow), ularin (red), ula ulari-ljaxun (deep red).[25]
Numerals
[edit source]Cardinals
[edit source]The following table includes the Solon's words for numerals from Toshiro Tsumagari and Shinjiro Kazama.[26][27]
| Number | Solon |
|---|---|
| 1 | əmun/emün |
| 2 | ǰuur/jüür |
| 3 | ilan |
| 4 | digin |
| 5 | tuŋa/toŋa |
| 6 | niŋun/niŋün |
| 7 | nadan |
| 8 | ǰaxun |
| 9 | jəgin/yegin |
| 10 | ǰaan |
| 11 | jaan emün |
| 12 | jaan jüür |
| 20 | orin |
| 30 | gotin |
| 40 | dexi |
| 50 | toŋŋεε/tornii |
| 60 | niŋüŋŋεε/niŋürnii |
| 70 | nadanŋŋεε/nadanrnii |
| 80 | jaxuŋŋεε/jaxurnii |
| 90 | yereen |
| 100 | namaaji |
| 200 | jüür namaaji |
| 1,000 | miŋgan |
| 10,000 | tümün |
The numerals 20, 30, 40, 90, 1,000 and 10,000 (orin, gotin, dexi, yereen, miŋgan and tümün) are shown to be borrowed from Manchu (orin, γusin, dexi, and tumen) and Mongolian (χorin, γucin, yiren, miŋgan, tümen).[28]
Derivative numerals
[edit source]Ordinal numerals have the suffix -si/-ci added to them, such as ila-si. Manchu supplementive forms are also adopted for first "üjü" (＜Ma. uju ʻid.＜head) and second "jai" (＜Ma.jai ʻid.＜next).[28]
The following is derivational suffixes of Solon from Toshiro Tsumagari.[28]
| Case | Suffix |
|---|---|
| Iterative | -raa |
| Collective | -nnεε |
| Distributive | -tal |
| Restrictive | -xxan |
Verbs
[edit source]Derivation
[edit source]Derivational suffixes are used in verb stems in Solon to change the primary stem's meaning, which includes its voice. The following table includes Solon's suffix's used as verb stems in Solon words with the English translation from Toshiro Tsumagari.[28]
| Suffix name | Suffix | Example in Solon and English |
|---|---|---|
| Passive | -wu～-guu | jawa-wu (to be held) |
| Causative | -xaan | eme-xeen (to make someone come) |
| Reciprocal | -ldi | jawa-ldi (to grasp each other) |
| -maasi | taa-maasi (to pull each other) | |
| Progressive | -ji | imanda-ji (to be snowing) |
| Purposive | -naa | jawa-naa (to go to catch) |
| Regressive | -rgi | eme-rgi (to come back) |
| Optative | -muun | jeb--müün (to want to eat) |
Script
[edit source]Historically, Solon did not have a literary form or script. In the 1980s, standardisation of the language had started, which included the creation of a script system that based itself off of the Mongolian script.[29] In the modern day, Solon uses both the Latin and Mongolian script.[30]
Loanwords
[edit source]Dagur
[edit source]Both Solon and Dagur have strongly influenced each other linguistically due to both ethnic groups living near each other.[31][32] Solons speak Dagur as a second language and approximately 100 words in Solon could be directly attributed to Solon.[33][31] Some examples include xaxraa (chicken) and düsee (wall).[34]
Rotacism
[edit source]As in Dagur, Solon has the Mongolic consonants b, g, d and s be replaced by the consonant r. The following table shows words from Solon, Dagur and other Mongolic languages that depict this consonant replacement.[35]
| English | Solon | Dagur | Literary Mongolian | Buryat | Khamnigan Mongol | Khalkha Mongolian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| threshold | basarga/basagga | basarga | bosoγ-a | bogoho | bosoga | bosgo |
| to break | erde- | erde-/erede- | ebde- | ebde- | ewde- | |
| people, nation | olur | olor | ulus | ulad | ulus | uls |
| chopsticks | sarpa | sarpa/sarepe | sabq-a | sabxa | sawx | |
| devil | širkül | širkul/šurkul | čidkür | šüdxer | čidkür | čötgör |
| to squeeze | xarči- | karči- | qabči- | xabša- | xawči- | |
| bowstring | xürči | kürči | köbči | xübše; | kübtši | xöwč |
Chinese
[edit source]Solon uses many Chinese loanwords, which include soŋko (window), xooco (train), dεεnsi (television), gaŋbii (pen) and liibεε (week). Solon loanwords from Chinese also include adverbs (maaſan - promptly), interjections (wei - hi, hello) and grammatical particles (si - a subject/topic marker, baa - an sentence-final marker). Chinese words in Solon use verb-formative suffixes to create verbs, such as gaŋbii-da (to use a pen,to write with a pen).[36]
Solon's lexical influence from Chinese has also been used for compounds and phrases. The following table from Toshiro Tsumagari includes words from Solon and Chinese with their literal transations into English.[34]
| Chinese | Solon |
|---|---|
| tielu (iron road) | sel teggü (railway) |
| zhongguo (central country) | doligu gürün (China) |
| chouyan (to pull tobacco) | daŋga taan- (to smoke) |
| da dianhua (to hit telephone) | dεεŋxo munda- (to make a telephone call) |
Russian
[edit source]The following are Solon words of Russian origin with their English translation from Toshiro Tsumagari.[34]
| Solon | English |
|---|---|
| kinoo | movie |
| xarandaa | pencil |
| xileeb | bread |
| doottor | doctor |
| mεεter | meter |
Glossary
[edit source]The following list of Solon words comes from Shinjiro Kazama.[37]
| English | Solon |
|---|---|
| head | dıl |
| hair | nuuttə, iŋatta |
| eye | iisal |
| nose | ňeenči |
| ear | seen |
| mouth | amma |
| tooth, teeth | iittə |
| hand | naala |
| finger | unaxan |
| foot, leg | bəldiir |
| skin | nanda |
| blood | səəči |
| bone | gıranda |
| flesh | uldə |
| body | bəjə |
| diseases, illness, sickness | ənux |
| medicine | əəŋ |
| salt | doosun |
| oil | immičči |
| liquor, wine | arixi |
| tabacco | daŋga |
| food | ǰittərə jəm |
| egg | umutta |
| bird | dəgii |
| knife | usxən |
| thread | širtə |
| clothes, clothing | təggačči |
| paper | saasun |
| thing | jəm |
| worm, insect | xulixan |
| fish | osxon |
| dog | nınaxın |
| house, home | ǰuu |
| money | məgun |
| tree | moo |
| grass | orotto |
| leaf | načči |
| flower, blossom | iggaa |
| seed | ur |
| field, acres, rice-field | taragan |
| way, road | təggu |
| river | doo |
| mountain | ur |
| water | muu |
| stone | ǰolo |
| earth | sirtan |
| fire | tog |
| wind | ədin |
| cloud | təčči |
| rain | tugdə |
| sky | bokkon |
| sun | sigun |
| moon | beega |
| star | oositta |
| day, afternoon | inigə |
| month | beega |
| year | anee |
| morning | əddə |
| night | dobbo |
| yesterday | tiinugu |
| tomorrow | timaasin |
| today | əri inigə |
| now | əsi |
| when | ooxidu |
| hour, time | ərin |
| how much | ooxii |
| how many | adii |
| altogether, all, whole | xokko |
| age | nasun |
| husband | ədəxən |
| wife | asi |
| father, papa | abaa, ami |
| mother, mama | əňəə, əməə |
| son | ukkəəxən |
| daughter | unaaǰi |
| elder brother | axaa, axin |
| elder sister | ədaa, əxin |
| younger brother | əkkəəxən nəxun |
| younger sister | unaaǰi nəxun |
| friend, mate | axaa nəxun |
| male | nirug bəj |
| female | axii bəj |
| person, man, one | bəj |
| I | bii |
| you | sii |
| he | tari |
| who | awu |
| name | gəbbi |
| letter | bitəg |
| voice | diggan |
| god | bokkon |
| this one | əri |
| it, that one | tari |
| which one | ijə |
| what | uxuŋ |
| why | ittu |
| here | ədu |
| there, that place, over there | tadu talaa |
| where, anywhere | iləə |
| left | jəəŋguu |
| right | bəruuŋguu |
| front | ǰuldəədə |
| back | amidaata |
| inside, inward, interior | doolo |
| out, outside, exterior | tuldəə |
| up | oroondo |
| down | əggilə |
References
[edit source]- ↑ "Solon". LINGUIST List. Retrieved 8 May 2026.
- 1 2 3 4 "Solon Ewenki" (PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2026.
- 1 2 Nargil 2025, p. 2.
- 1 2 Nargil 2025, p. 1.
- 1 2 Christopher_Moseley & Alexandre_Nicolas 2010, p. 204-205.
- ↑ Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 337-338.
- 1 2 3 Elisabetta Ragagnin; Bayarma Khabtagaeva (28 December 2022). Endangered Languages of Northeast Asia. Brill Publishers. pp. 277–278. ISBN 9004503501. Retrieved 11 May 2026.
- 1 2 3 Juha Janhunen; Tapani Salminen (2000). "UNESCO RED BOOK ON ENDANGERED LANGUAGES: NORTHEAST ASIA". Archived from the original on 2016-03-16. Retrieved 2026-07-30.
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Solon". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ↑ Christopher_Moseley & Alexandre_Nicolas 2010, p. 58.
- 1 2 Nargil 2025, p. 4.
- ↑ Janhunen 1996, pp. 70–72.
- ↑ Janhunen 1996b, p. 828.
- 1 2 Christopher_Moseley & Alexandre_Nicolas 2010, p. 53.
- ↑ Janhunen 1996, p. 83.
- ↑ Hölzl, Andreas (2018). The Tungusic languages family through the ages:Interdisciplinary perspectives. Tallinn: University of Zurich. Retrieved 11 May 2026.
- ↑ Tsumagari 2009, p. 2.
- ↑ "Endangered Languages Project - Solon". ELP. Retrieved 2026-07-30.
- ↑ Nargil 2025, p. 8.
- 1 2 Tsumagari 2009, p. 3.
- 1 2 3 Kazama 2003, p. 12.
- 1 2 Tsumagari 2009, p. 4.
- ↑ Tsumagari 2009, p. 5.
- 1 2 3 4 Tsumagari 2009, p. 6.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tsumagari 2009, p. 7.
- ↑ Tsumagari 2009, p. 7-8.
- ↑ Kazama 2003, p. 53-55.
- 1 2 3 4 Tsumagari 2009, p. 8.
- ↑ Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 338.
- ↑ "Courses: Department of Central Eurasian Studies". Archived from the original on 2009-06-13. Retrieved 2026-05-06.
- 1 2 Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 345.
- ↑ Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 337.
- ↑ Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 339.
- 1 2 3 Tsumagari 2009, p. 18.
- ↑ Khabtagaeva 2012, p. 339-340.
- ↑ Tsumagari 2009, p. 17-18.
- ↑ Kazama 2003, p. 16-80.
Bibliography
[edit source]- Janhunen, Juha (1996), Manchuria: an ethnic history, Volume 222 of Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia, Suomalais-ugrilainen Seura, Finno-Ugrian Society, ISBN 9789519403847
- Janhunen, Juha (1996b), "Mongolic languages as idioms of intercultural communication in Northern Manchuria", in Wurm, Stephen Adolphe; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Tryon, Darrell T. (eds.), Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 827–835, ISBN 978-3-11-013417-9
- Tsumagari, Toshiro (2009). A sketch of Solon grammar. Journal of the Graduate School of Letters. Hokkaido University. Retrieved 2026-05-10.
- Khabtagaeva, Bayarma (2012). "The Dagur elements in Solon Evenki". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 65: 335–346. JSTOR 43282466. Retrieved 11 May 2026.
- Kazama, Shinjiro (2003). Basic vocabulary (A) of Tungusic languages (in Japanese). Osaka Gakuin University. pp. 12–80. ISSN 1346-082X. Retrieved 2026-05-28.
- Nargil (March 2025). "The Language Ecology and Endangerment of Solon, a Tungusic Language Spoken in China". Sibirica. 24 (1). ResearchGate. doi:10.3167/sib.2025.240101. Retrieved 30 July 2026.
- Christopher Moseley; Alexandre Nicolas (2010). Atlas of the world's languages in danger. UNESCO. Retrieved 2026-06-01.