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Malinithan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Malinithan
Malini than Likabali
Religion
AffiliationEthnic religion
DistrictLower Siang district
DeityKechai-Khati/Pishasi (tribal goddess)[1]
Location
LocationLikabali
StateArunachal Pradesh
CountryIndia
Map
Interactive map of Malinithan
Coordinates27°39′24″N 94°42′21″E / 27.65667°N 94.70583°E / 27.65667; 94.70583
Architecture
CreatorChutia kings[2]
Completed13th-14th century[3]
Malini Than temple complex

Malinithan (also historically known as Ghagrathan) is an archaeological site containing the ruins of a medieval period temple on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra River in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is generally attributed to the Chutia kings[2] in the 13th-14th centuries.[3] Art-historical study of the iconography and development of Indian temple art suggests that the cultural period represented by the Malinithan remains extended from about the 10th to the 14th century.[4] Scholars have suggested that the Chutia rulers may have employed artisans brought from Odisha or other parts of eastern India in its construction.[5][6] The scale of its stone architecture has also been taken to indicate construction under a prosperous polity before the Ahom occupation of the region in the 16th century, with its latest phase assignable to the period of the Chutia kingdom.[7] The temple is not mentioned in the 10th–11th-century Kalika Purana, indicating that the present temple was likely built after this period. The site may, however, have existed earlier as a local or indigenous shrine before its later development into a formal temple complex.[8] As per the District Gazatteers (1928), the nearby Adi people called it the shrine of Matri Malanti.[9] As per Sarma (2020), the presence of the narrow Akashiganga stream, similar to the sites of Tamreswari Temple and Buraburi temples, indicates that sacrifices were performed in the temple.[10]

Scholars identify the chief deity of Malinithan with Dikkaravasini, described in the Kalika Purana as the principal deity of north-eastern Assam, and also associate her with the Kechai-Khaiti or Tamreswari form of Devi worship.[11] Kechai-Khaiti is a tribal goddess found among various Bodo-Kachari groups.[a] The worship of the goddess Kechai-Khaiti is performed according to her old tribal customs.[20] At her main shrine located in Sadiya, the goddess was taken care of by tribal priests known as the Deoris (specifically the Borgoya sect of the Deoris).[21]

Etymology and names

[edit]

The site has been known by several names. The 1928 Sadiya and Balipara Frontier Tract Gazetteer records that the neighbouring Dobang Abors knew the shrine as Matri Malanti and regarded it as sacred.[22] J. N. Chowdhury similarly records that the ruins were locally known as Ghagrathan as well as Malinithan.[23] Ghagrathan has been explained as referring to the nearby Ghagra River, with than denoting a shrine or sacred place.[24]

The present name Malinithan (also rendered Malinisthan) is conventionally interpreted as the "abode" or "shrine of Malini". A later local legend associates the name with Parvati, who is said to have offered garlands to Krishna and Rukmini during their journey from Bhismaknagar; Krishna is then said to have addressed her as Malini, or "mistress of the garden".[25] This explanation belongs to the later Krishna–Rukmini tradition associated with the site and does not explain the earlier recorded name Matri Malanti.

Location

[edit]

The Malinithan archaeological site is located at the base of the Siang mountains in the Likabali town and a sub-division of the Lower Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh.[26][27] It is situated on a hill that rises to a height of 21 metres (69 ft), which affords a commanding view of the plains around it and of the Brahmaputra River.[28]

History

[edit]
Malinithan temple complex

Archaeologists have generally dated the principal temple complex to the 13th–14th centuries.[3] Art-historical assessments, however, place the cultural period represented by the surviving sculptures and architectural remains within a broader span extending from about the 10th to the 14th century.[4] As per Bhyomakesh Tripathy, the scale of its stone architecture has also been taken to indicate construction under a prosperous polity before the Ahom occupation of the region in the 16th century, with its latest phase assignable to the period of the Chutia kingdom.[7] The granite sculptures like the images of Indra, Surya on chariot and Karttika have been dated to the 13th–15th centuries and described as representing a later development of the Pala-Sena sculptural tradition.[29][30]

Scholars generally assign the temple complex to the Chutia period[2] and suggest that the Chutia rulers may have employed artisans brought from Odisha or other parts of eastern India in its construction.[6] An architectural analysis likewise links the site's layout and construction to the era of Chutia rule. It notes that the fully developed ground plan comprising the vimana, mandapa and mukhamandapa is characteristic of temple architecture of the 12th century or later. The vimana at Malinithan is of the saptaratha type; while pancharatha plans remained more common up to about the 12th century, the adoption of a seven-projection plan is interpreted as indicating a construction date in the 12th–13th centuries. On chronological grounds, the study therefore places the construction of the temple within the period of the rise of the Chutia polity.[31]

The same study further draws attention to the arrangement of the vimana, mandapa and mukhamandapa as three distinct architectural units separated by small intervals. It compares this layout with medieval temples of Odisha, while noting that such a plan is not generally seen in temples of Assam attributed to the Salasthamba and Kamarupa Pala periods. Since this form of temple construction continued in Odisha at least until the end of the 13th century, whereas the Kamarupa Pala polity had already declined by the time of the rise of the Chutias, the author suggests that the temple may have been built under Chutia royal patronage by craftsmen brought from Odisha.[31][5]

Stonemason marks found in Malinithan[32][33] were also found in other sites of Sadiya like Tamreswari temple, Bura-buri, a brick-stone tank (near Dibang), as well as other places like Naksaparvat and Buroi. The boundary stone-cum-brick wall of Tamreswari temple, which contains the mason marks, was built by the Chutia king Muktadharmanarayan in 1442 AD.[34][35] The temple is not mentioned in the 10th–11th-century Kalika Purana, indicating that the present temple was likely built after this period. The site may, however, have existed earlier as a local or indigenous shrine before its later development into a formal temple complex.[36]

By the early twentieth century, Malinithan was already a ruined monument, although the site continued to retain a sacred character. In the early 1920s, W. H. Calvert, the Assistant Political Officer at Pasighat, visited the site and encountered a sadhu residing there. It was subsequently inspected by D. Barua and B. Bhuyan, the latter finding a detached sivalinga, several damaged stone images including a ten-armed Durga, pieces of decorated silver and smoking pipes. On the basis of these remains, Bhuyan considered the site to have continued to receive occasional pilgrims.[25]

Local traditions also preserved the sacred character of the ruins before their archaeological excavation. A later account records that the site was formerly known as Ghagrathan, after the nearby Ghagra River, and that local tribal hunters avoided hunting in the area and made offerings there for protection from harmful spirits; the place subsequently developed as a centre of pilgrimage.[37]

Systematic archaeological excavation began in 1968 under L. N. Chakravarty, then Deputy Director of Research (History) of the Arunachal Pradesh Administration, and continued in a series of campaigns until 1971. The excavations exposed the decorated basement of the temple complex and recovered more than one hundred sculptures and architectural fragments, including images of Hindu deities, dancing yakshas, animal and floral motifs, carved panels and iron dowels or clamps used in the masonry.[25] A further excavation reported in the Indian Archaeology 1972–73: A Review recovered, among other remains, a granite image of Surya standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses and an image of Ganesha.[38]

The site subsequently underwent conservation and further archaeological investigation. Five sculptures from Malinithan were chemically treated in 1990–91, while conservation of the antarala and mandapa and further excavation were undertaken in 2016 and 2017 respectively.[39][40] Malinithan is presently a state-protected archaeological monument maintained by the Directorate of Research of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh.[41]

Legend

[edit]

A legend was implanted around the site by Srimanta Sankardev in the 16th century, connecting the place to the mythological king of Bhishmaka (Lord of Vidarbha) of the epics.[42] The association of the legend with the place led to a widespread renaming of the region.[43]

As per the mythology constructed, when Krishna wanted to marry Rukmini, the daughter of King Bhishmaka of Vidarbha, he abducted her prior to her wedding with Shishupala. Krishna and Rukmini then travelled from Bhishmakanagar to Dwarka, stopping at Malinithan on the way over, where they were guests of Shiva and Durga, who were doing penance. Parvati, Shiva's consort, warmly welcoming her guests, presented them with garlands made of flowers plucked from her orchard.[44]

Features

[edit]

The archaeological excavations revealed a very well-designed and carved plinth of a temple, 8 feet (2.4 m) high, with sculptures of deities and animals, floral designs, and damaged columns and panels. Four sculptures of lions on elephants were found at the four corners of the temple ruins.

Among the sculptures found at Malinithan, five notable examples carved from granite are Indra riding Airavata, Kartikeya riding a peacock, Surya riding a chariot, Ganesha with his mouse, and a large Nandi bull.[28] The images of Indra and Kartikeya have been dated to the 13th–14th centuries and described as representing a later development of the Pala-Sena sculptural tradition.[29]

Later excavations revealed additional structural and sculptural remains. Excavation on the eastern side of the complex recovered sandstone sculptures including a small image of Varahi, gaja-simha figures and other carved fragments, while another temple base was exposed to the north of the principal temple together with pillars, lintels, beams and roof elements.[45] In the northern excavation, the architectural members were predominantly sandstone, whereas most of the sculptures were of fine-grained spotted granite. The finds included fragments interpreted as belonging to a large ten-armed Durga image, a granite lotus pedestal, lamp stands and other sculptural remains.[45]

Based on the erotic Maithuna sculptures found here in different postures, it is believed that tantricism prevailed here as a fertility rite of the primitive tribal people who held the "mother principal as the procreative power of nature".[46]

The temple is carved entirely out of stone, a type of temple known as Asmamayai. Iron dowels discovered in the ruins of the stone temple resemble the ones found in the Tamreswari temple of Sadiya.[47]

Conversion to a Sacred Hindu shrine

[edit]

With the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party in the state, similar to Kamakhya temple, Malinithan has been portrayed as a sacred Hindu shrine as a broader effort to saffronise the region.[citation needed]

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ (Shin 2023:71)
  2. 1 2 3 Sarma, P. C. (2020). "Chutiya Architecture". A Study of the Temple Architecture of Assam from the Gupta Period to the End of the Ahom Rule (PDF) (PhD thesis). Guwahati: Gauhati University. p. 205. Kings of the Chutiya Kingdom in the 13th-14th Century built the Malinithan temple. He reigned in the Sadiya region in the Northeast corner of Assam on the north bank of Brahmaputra. The chief deity of Malinithan temple is Durga/Kechai-Khaiti or feminine supreme power deity of Hindu mythology. Goddess in her Shakti form worshipped. A nearby narrow stream named Akhashiganga similar to the site of Tamreswari and Bura-Buri Temples of Sadiya. It indicates that sacrifices were in the temple.; Choudhury, R. D., Heritage of Architecture of Assam – Need for Conservation (PDF), p. 5, archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2020, Though these temples were included in the Chutiã kingdom, they must have been built by importing artisans from the west of their kingdom. Stylistically, the ruins may belong to c. 13th/14th century and not the 12th century as said by Sarma.; Sengupta, Gautam, "Archaeology in Northeast India" (PDF), Ancient India, New Series, 1, Archaeological Survey of India: 359
  3. 1 2 3 Thakur, A. K. (2004). "Pre-Historic Archaeological Remains of Arunachal Pradesh and People's Perception: An Overview". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 65: 1190–1191. JSTOR 44144827. It(Malini Than) is a temple complex and has been dated to 13th-14th century.; Osik, N. N. (1996). A Brief History of Arunachal Pradesh: From Earliest Times to 1823 A.D. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. p. 35. L.N. Chakravarty, Director of Research (rtd.) place the approximate date of ruins of Malinithan as of the 13th and 14th century A.D.; Ashraf, A. A. (1998). "Archaeological Remains and Further Prospects in Arunachal Pradesh". Purātattva (28). New Delhi: Indian Archaeological Society: 75. While Malinithan is a temple complex and has been dated to 13th-14th century AD..
  4. 1 2 Mazinder, Raj Kumar. Great Sculptural Tradition of Temples in North-East India: A Study on Heritage Stature of Malinithan and Bhismak Nagar.
  5. 1 2 (Baruah 2007:427–428); Dutta, J. C. (1997). Malinithan: A Study on Iconography. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.; Goyal, Anuradha (18 November 2011). "Malinithan By J C Dutta – Book Review". Retrieved 1 October 2026. The material used in the temple is not local. And must have been brought from Utkal or present-day Odisha, along with master artisans from other places.
  6. 1 2 "Though these temples were included in the Chutiã kingdom, they must have been built by importing artisans from the west of their kingdom."(Choudhury n.d.:5)
  7. 1 2 Tripathy, Byomakesh (2008). Religious History of Arunachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Gyan Pub. House. pp. 353, 355. ISBN 978-81-212-1002-7. Such a large area of stone architecture implies a prosperity and height of culture which could be possible only under a strong, stable and flourishing kingdom. Malinithan should have been either by the side of or close to the capital of that kingdom. That it belongs to a pre-Ahom period can be accepted without any hesitation, Ahom extended their sway to this part of the country only in 16th century i.e., after the fall of the Chutiyas, and from that period the area has been subjected to political disturbances. So extensive and expensive construction as at Malinithan cannot be expected in that period. The latest date that can be assigned is within the Chutiya period.
  8. ↑ Phukan, Chitralekha; Dutta, Tarun (2025). "Malinithan: A unique saktipitha in North East India" (PDF). International Journal of Sanskrit Research. 11 (6): 455. doi:10.22271/23947519.2025.v11.i6g.2910. Retrieved 11 June 2026. Even the extent literature such as Kalikapuran, Yogini Tantra did not mention about Malinithan. The Ahom Buranji or Chronicles and other records also maintain complete silence about Malinithan.
  9. ↑ C. Allen, B (1928). Assam district gazetteers. Vol. XI. Baptist Mission Press. p. 21. 'The shrine is known to the Dobang Abors as Matri Malanti and is respected by them."
  10. ↑ Sarma, P. C. (2020). A Study of the Temple Architecture of Assam from the Gupta Period to the End of the Ahom Rule (PhD thesis). Guwahati: Gauhati University. p. 205. A nearby narrow stream named Akhashiganga, similar to the sites of the Tamreswari and Bura-Buri temples of Sadiya, indicates that sacrifices were performed in the temple.
  11. ↑ Phukan, Chitralekha; Dutta, Tarun (2025). "Malinithan: A unique saktipitha in North East India" (PDF). International Journal of Sanskrit Research. 11 (6): 455. doi:10.22271/23947519.2025.v11.i6g.2910. Retrieved 11 June 2026. The influence of Saktism in Assam can be traced to the earliest historical periods. The Devi Purana, composed between the 7th and 8th centuries, records that the goddess or Sakti was worshipped in various manifestations throughout Kamarupa. The text specially names Kamrupa, along with a few other regions, as the sacred abode of the Goddess, with the divine residence. A clear and detailed picture of the origin of Saktism in early Assam cannot, however, be traced to the authentic historical records. For this we are to depend mainly to the purana and Tantras produced during that time. The Kalika Purana and Yogini Tantra are two of the early Sakta treaties of Assam, which are regarded as authorities in Saktism India. The goddess is also associated with a fierce and terrifying form. In this aspect, she was popularly referred to as Kechaikhati, meaning "the eater of raw flesh" because human sacrifices were reportedly offered to her each year at Sadiya. In that region she was worshipped there as Trameswari Devi, the deity of the old copper temple. B.K. Kakati point out that this goddess is the same as Dikkaravasini, whom the Kalika Purana text describes as the main deity of North Eastern Assam. She is also identified with Ugratara. Dr Kakoti further explains that the Devi is honoured in four major manifestations forms of the Devi, form of the devi mother as Kamakhya, form of wife Devi as Parboti, form of spinster as Tripuri Bhairavi and the form of Kecaikhati as Tamreswari. For these reasons, several scholars consider Malini or Malinithan to be another important expression of Devi worship.
  12. ↑ "The most famous temple of the Chutiyas was that of Kechaikhati, their primodial female deity.(Dutta 1985:49)
  13. ↑ Devi, Premalata (1992). "1". Religious philosophy of the Boros of the Brahmaputra Valley (Thesis). Department of Philosophy, Gauhati University. p. 5 – via Shodhganga.
  14. ↑ Rabhas worship Kechai-khati and celebrate the Kechai-khati festival once every year
  15. ↑ Chakravorty, Bhaswati (2015). "10". A Study on Festivals of Assam and France with Particular Reference to Bihu and Christmas (Thesis). Department of Foreign Languages, Gauhati University. p. 137 – via Shodhganga.
  16. ↑ Bhargava, Gopal, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of Art and Culture in India: Assam. Vol. 22. Delhi: Isha Books. p. 255.
  17. ↑ Nag, Sajal. "From Dewan to Dheyan: Trajectory of a Forgotten Medieval State in South Assam". Academia.edu. Retrieved 17 July 2026. It was due to his religious nature that a temple for the Koch Deity Kechai Khati was established in nearby Udharbund during his rule.
  18. ↑ The Tiwas, as well as the Koch, also worshipped Kechai Kati. The Koch general Gohain Kamal built temples dedicated to Kesai Khati in Khaspur for the Dehans who were Tiwa and Mech soldiers from Gobha, Nellie and Kabi.
  19. ↑ "There is at Sadiya a shrine of Kechai Khati the tutelar deity of the Kacharis, which the Dimasa rulers continued to worship even after the establishment of their rule in Cachar." (Bhattacharjee 1992:393)
  20. ↑ "(S)he [Kesai Khati] was incorporated into the Sanskritized cosmos of goddess tradition and as her tribal attributes were so strong to be denounced as non-Brahminical, her worship continued according to old customs."(Gogoi 2011:236)
  21. ↑ (Shin 2023:70–71)
  22. ↑ Assam District Gazetteers, Vol. XI: The Sadiya and Balipara Frontier Tract. Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press. 1928. p. 21. The shrine is known to the Dobang Abors as Matri Malanti and is respected by them.
  23. ↑ Chowdhury, J. N. (1992). Arunachal Panorama. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. p. 22. A great heap of ruins, known to the local people as Ghagrathan or Malinithan, can be seen at the foothills areas of the Siang district, very close to Likabali.
  24. ↑ Gogoi, Deepsikha (2019). "'Thān' Institution of Assam: An Introduction with special references on Malinithān" (PDF). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention. 8 (5): 73–75.
  25. 1 2 3 Gazetteer of India: Arunachal Pradesh, East Siang and West Siang Districts. Government of Arunachal Pradesh. 1994. Cite error: The named reference "SiangGazetteer" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  26. ↑ "Malini Than". Government of Arunachal Pradesh. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
  27. ↑ "Likabali". Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  28. 1 2 Sali 1998, p. 148.
  29. 1 2 "Art and Architecture of Assam". Cultural History of Assam. Guwahati: Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University. 2019. p. 152. The unearthing of the icons of Indra and Karttika at Malinithan... dating back to 13th - 14th century A.D.
  30. ↑ Dube, S. C. (1990). Indian Society. Young India Library. New Delhi: National Book Trust. p. 44. Malinithan town is known for its granite sculpture of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Notable works here are the images of Indra on his elephant Airavat, Surya in his chariot, and Shiva's Nandi bull.
  31. 1 2 Baruah, Swarnalata (2007). Chutia Jatir Buranji (in Assamese). pp. 427–428.
  32. ↑ Thakur, A.K, Pre-historic Archeological Remains of Arunachal Pradesh and People's perception: An Overview, p.6
  33. ↑ Dikshit, K.N, "Bulletin of the Archaeological Society(1997-98)", p.75
  34. ↑ " As mentioned earlier, Mukta-dharmanarayana, who constructed the wall of Tamresvari (alias Kecaikhati, Dikkaravasini) Temple or the temple itself in AD 1442"(Shin 2023:69)
  35. ↑ "The Pãyã-Tãmresvari (Dikkaravãsiní) temple inscription announces that King Dharmanãrãyana raised in 1364 Šaka [1442 AD] a wall (prãkãra) around the temple of Dikkaravãsiní, popularly known as Tãmresvari."(Neog 1977:817)
  36. ↑ Phukan, Chitralekha; Dutta, Tarun (2025). "Malinithan: A unique saktipitha in North East India" (PDF). International Journal of Sanskrit Research. 11 (6): 455. doi:10.22271/23947519.2025.v11.i6g.2910. Retrieved 11 June 2026. Even the extent literature such as kalikapuran, Yogini Tantra did not mention about Malinithan. The Ahom Buranji or Chronicles and other records also maintain complete silence about Malinithan.
  37. ↑ Gogoi, Deepsikha (2019). "'Thān' Institution of Assam: An Introduction with special references on Malinithān" (PDF). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention. 8 (5): 73–75.
  38. ↑ Deshpande, M. N., ed. (1978). "Excavation at Malinithan, District Siang". Indian Archaeology 1972–73: A Review. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
  39. ↑ Indian Archaeology 1990–91: A Review. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
  40. ↑ Challenges Faced in Heritage Management in India and Policy Imperatives (Report). NITI Aayog. 2021.
  41. ↑ "Archaeology". Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. Retrieved 1 October 2026.
  42. ↑ "Among many works of Śaṅkaradeva, the Rukmiṇiharaṇa, the poem of Rukmimi and Krishna, gained considerable popularity in the Sadiya area and influenced its regional identity construction. Rukmiṇī, in this poem, was a daughter of king Bhīṣmaka"(Shin 2020:55)
  43. ↑ "Considering the wide popularity of the Rukmiṇīharaṇa among the people, especially as the staged performance, it is not surprising that many toponyms of the area were derived from this Vaiṣṇava legend and the legendary places associated with Bhīṣmaka were reproduced in the local landscape. For instance, Vidarbha, the name of the country, once ruled by Bhīṣmaka according to the Epics and Purāṇas and perhaps identical with Behar in Maharashtra, was applied to the area around Sadiya."(Shin 2020:56)
  44. ↑ (Shin 2020:56)
  45. 1 2 Phukan, Chitralekha; Dutta, Tarun (2025). "Malinithan: A unique saktipitha in North East India" (PDF). International Journal of Sanskrit Research. 11 (6): 456. doi:10.22271/23947519.2025.v11.i6g.2910. Retrieved 11 June 2026.
  46. ↑ Religious history of Arunachal Pradesh. Byomakesh Tripathy, Sristidhar Dutta, Rajiv Gandhi University. Department of History, Indian Council of Social Science Research. New Delhi: Gyan Pub. House. 2008. p. 351. ISBN 978-81-212-1002-7. OCLC 263065510.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  47. ↑ Religious History of Arunachal Pradesh by Byomakesh Tripathy, p.354

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Kechai Khati was worshipped by several groups within the Bodo-Kachari family, including Chutias,[12] Bodos,[13] Rabhas,[14][15] Tiwas,[16] Koch[17][18] and Dimasas.[19]

Bibliography

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  • Shin, Jae-Eun (2023), Kecaikhaiti, Eater of Raw Flesh: A Profile of the Multifaceted Goddess in the North-East, Manohar Publishers & Distributors
  • Laine, Nicolas (2019), Phi Muangs. Forces of the Place among the Khamti in Arunachal Pradesh
  • Sali, M. L. (1 January 1998). India-China Border Dispute: A Case Study of the Eastern Sector. APH Publishing. ISBN 978-81-7024-964-1.
  • Bhattacharjee, J. B. (1992), "The Kachari (Dimasa) state formation", in Barpujari, H. K. (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 391–397
  • Dutta, Sristidhar (1985), The Mataks and their Kingdom, Allahabad: Chugh Publications
  • Shin, Jae-Eun (2020). "Descending from demons, ascending to kshatriyas: Genealogical claims and political process in pre-modern Northeast India, The Chutiyas and the Dimasas". The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 57 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1177/0019464619894134. S2CID 213213265.
  • Gogoi, Kakoli (2011). "Envisioning Goddess Tara: A Study of the Tara Traditions in Assam". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 72: 232–239. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44146715.
  • Neog, Maheswar (1977). "Light on a Ruling Dynasty of Arunachal Pradesh in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 58/59: 813–820. ISSN 0378-1143. JSTOR 41691751.
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