Classical Mongolian

Classical Mongolian ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠬᠡᠯᠡ Mongɣol khele
The Altan Tobchi, a Mongolian chronicle and work of historical literature, 1604, Northern Yuan period.
Native to	Mongolia, Northern China, Southern Siberia of Russia, Eastern Kazakhstan
Era	1600–1900; developed into Modern Mongolian
Language family	Mongolic Classical Mongolian ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠬᠡᠯᠡ Mongɣol khele
Early form	Middle Mongolian
Writing system	Mongolian script ʼPhags-pa Clear script Soyombo alphabet Galik script Horizontal Square Script
Language codes
ISO 639-3	cmg
Glottolog	None

Classical Mongolian was the literary language of Mongolian that was first introduced shortly after 1600 when Ligdan Khan set his clergy the task of translating the whole of the Tibetan Buddhist canon, consisting of the Kangyur and Tengyur, as well as Sanskrit Buddhist literature into Mongolian. This was a period when numerous chronicles and scriptures were produced under the Northern Yuan government's policy of praising and popularizing the eloquent depictions of Secret History of the Mongols, writing about the state, ethnicity, and customs of the Mongols, and publishing and popularizing Mongolian literature. This script then became the established writing system used for all Mongolian literature until the 1930s when the Mongolian Latin alphabet was introduced, which then in 1941 was replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet.

Classical Mongolian was formerly used in Mongolia, China, and Russia. It is a standardized written language used in the 17th century to 20th centuries.

Classical Mongolian sometimes refers to any language documents in Mongolian script that are neither Pre-classical (i.e. Middle Mongol in the Mongolian script) nor modern Mongolian.

Mongol Genealogical Records of the Khalkha Mongols, tracing the lineage from Genghis Khan through Kublai Khan and Dayan Khan to the Four Genghisid Khanates and, later, the four Genghisid Khalkha aimags of Bogd Khanate Mongolia, written in Middle Mongol to Classical Mongol in the Uyghur Mongolian script. 13th-20th centuries.

Literature and historical writing

Classical Mongolian became an important literary language for historical and genealogical writing among the Mongols. A substantial body of chronicles and historical works was produced during the Northern Yuan, Khalkha Khanates and the Dzungar Khanate under the Great Khans, Khalkha Borjigins and Oirat polities. Works such as the Altan Tobchi by Guush Luvsandanzan, Erdeniin Tobchi by Saghang Sechen, and Bolor Erike by Rashpuntsag preserve traditions concerning the origins and history of the Mongols, accounts of Genghis Khan’s life and ancestry, genealogies and histories of his descendants, the history of the Yuan dynasty, imperial history of the Mongols, the history from Genghis Khan to Ligden Khan, Khans of Khalkha Mongols, and sayings and teachings attributed to Genghis Khan. These works represent some of the most important examples of Mongolian historical prose written in the classical literary language. The poems of Choghtu Khong Tayiji, preserved in the Duutiin Khad inscriptions, are also regarded as important works of Classical Mongolian literature.

Altan Tobchi, Mongolian Chronicle, Classical Mongolian historical literature

The Altan Tobchi, compiled in the seventeenth century, is particularly significant for the preservation of early Mongolian historical traditions and was inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World International Register in 2011.

Erdeniin Erike, Mongolian Chronicle, Classical Mongolian, Uyghur Mongolian script.

Inscriptions

Classical Mongolian was also used for monumental and rock inscriptions, continuing the long Inner Asian nomadic tradition of recording texts on stone. One of the best-known examples is the Duutiin Khad inscription associated with the Khalkha prince Choghtu Khong Tayiji. Its inscription contains a Mongolian poem notable for its literary style, Buddhist themes, and philosophical reflections. The stone inscriptions of Choghtu Khong Tayiji were inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World International Register in 2023.

Duutiin Khad inscription of Choghtu Khong Tayiji of Khalkha Mongols, 1624, Mongolia

Among the Oirat Mongols, inscriptions written in the Todo Mongol Script created by Zaya Pandita also form an important part of the Mongolian written heritage. The inscriptions at Tamgaly Tas, which include Buddhist texts and invocations written in Oirat Mongol Todo Mongol script, are notable examples of this epigraphic tradition.

Tamgaly-Tas inscription by Zaya Pandita, written in Classical Oirat Mongolian in the Todo Mongol script, 17th-century. Present-day Kazakhstan.

Buddhist literature and translation

Classical Mongolian played a major role in the transmission of Buddhist literature. Large numbers of Buddhist works were translated into Mongolian from Tibetan Buddhism and, directly or indirectly, from Sanskrit Buddhist literature. Among the most important collections were the Mongolian Kangyur and Tengyur, which contain translations of the Buddhist canon and its commentarial literature.

Especially elaborate manuscript editions were produced using gold, silver, and other precious materials. The Mongolian Tangyur was inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World International Register in 2011, while the Kanjur Written with Nine Precious Stones, an exceptional 111-volume manuscript, was inscribed in 2013.

Diplomatic and administrative documents

Classical Mongolian was also widely employed in diplomatic correspondence and official documents. Surviving examples include letters sent by the Chahundorj Khan of Tusheet Khanate of the Khalkha Mongols to the Tsardom of Russia, as well as correspondence involving the Kazakh ruler Ablai Khan's letter in Oirat Mongolian. Such documents provide important evidence for the use of written Mongolian in diplomacy, political communication, and relations between the Mongol polities and their neighbouring states.

Letter of Chahundorj Khan of the Tusheet Khanate of Khalkha Mongols to the Tsar Fyodor III of Tsardom of Russia in Classical Mongolian in the Mongolian script, 17th-century

Letter of Ablai Sultan of Kazakhs to Emperor of Manchu-Qing in Classical Oirat Mongolian language in the Todo Mongol script.

Lexicography and language learning

Classical Mongolian was also extensively used in dictionaries, glossaries, and language-learning materials. The development of Mongolian lexicography was closely connected with the translation and study of Tibetan Buddhist literature. Tibetan–Mongolian dictionaries were compiled to assist Mongolian scholars and translators in understanding Buddhist terminology. Among such works was the Tibetan–Mongolian dictionary rTogs par sla ba (“Easy to Learn”), compiled in 1737, which has been studied as an important source for Tibetan–Mongolian lexicographic relations. The Mongols also made a significant contribution to the development of Tibetan Buddhism. The Mongol elites of the steppe, such as Altan Khan of Tumed, then Tumen Zasagt Khan, Abtai Sain Khan, etc., were used by the Tibetans to develop the Gelug movement, and in this process, the process of learning the Mongolian language was strongly established in Tibet. Altan Khan created the title of Dalai Lama, and Gushi Khan of the Khasar dynasty established the Khoshut Khanate and declared himself the Protector king of Tibet. The influence of the Khoshut Khanate on the Tibetan language was significantly strong, and after that, the influence of the Dzungar monks and elites, which led to the widespread use of Mongolian-Tibetan language training and translation.

During the Qing dynasty, Mongolian was also incorporated into large multilingual lexicographical projects. The imperial Pentaglot Dictionary (Yuzhi Wuti Qing Wenjian) arranged corresponding vocabulary in Manchu, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chagatai and Chinese, illustrating the important role of Mongolian as one of the major written languages of the Qing Empire.

Tibetan-Mongolian and Mongolian-Tibetan dictionaries used for learning Mongolian, 18th-century

Mongolian was also studied outside the Mongol regions. In Korea, the training of Mongolian interpreters had begun during the Goryeo period and continued under the Joseon dynasty. The Joseon government’s Bureau of Interpreters (Sayeogwon) maintained Mongolian as one of its principal foreign-language specialisations alongside Chinese, Japanese and Jurchen, later Manchu. Interpreters for Mongolian were trained and examined for Joseon government service, and the system continued until the interpreter examinations were abolished in 1894. The above four foreign languages ​​also had a priority, and Mongolian was ranked second after Chinese, and only in the latter half of the 18th century did it become third after Manchu language.

Mongolian-Korean textbooks and dictionary to learning Mongolian during 14th-19th centuries, Joseon Dynasty.

Thus, direct contact with the Mongols has become rare, but the Mongolian language has been taught for 500 years, which is because the Korean authorities adhered to the policy of being prepared until the end of the 18th century, that the Mongols would become strong again, conquer China, and replace the Manchu Qing Dynasty. Initially, in addition to the Uyghur Mongolian script, they also taught the Phagspa script. However, by 1423, Phagspa was still being taught, but it seems that it was eventually stopped due to the decline in its use in Mongolia, except seal. Several textbooks produced or revised for this tradition survive, most notably the Mong-e Nogoldae (蒙語老乞大), Cheophae Mong-e (捷解蒙語), and Mong-e Yuhae (蒙語類解). The first two were used principally for studying Mongolian conversation and translation, while the Mong-e Yuhae was a classified vocabulary. These works are especially valuable because they record Mongolian not only in the traditional Mongolian script but also with Korean phonetic transcriptions, preserving evidence for the pronunciation and spoken forms of Mongolian in the 17th and 18th centuries.(몽학, Monghak) were trained alongside specialists in Chinese, Japanese and Jurchen. The Joseon legal and administrative system formally provided for the teaching of Mongolian at the Bureau of Interpreters, where officials specialising in Mongolian (몽학, Monghak) were trained alongside specialists in Chinese, Japanese and Jurchen.

See also

• Middle Mongolian

Sources

• Grønbech, Kaare; Krueger, John Richard (1993). An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-03298-8.
• Janhunen, Juha (2003). "Written Mongol". In Janhunen, J. (ed.). The Mongolic languages. Routledge Language Family Series. Vol. 5. London: Routledge. pp. 30–56. ISBN 978-0-700-71133-8.