Draft:Mongolian Brahmi Script

• Comment: Please use Template:ISBN and Template:doi for ISBN numbers. (See this edit of mine for how to do this.) Hoary (talk)^WWU 👍︎ 01:34, 4 October 2026 (UTC)

---

File:HT1 Alphabate Structures. En.jpg

Structures of independent vowels, dependent vowels, and consonants in the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (reconstructed by L. Qurčabayatur Solongyod, 2025)

The Mongolian Brāhmī script (Template:Lang-mn) refers to a variant of the Brahmic script family used to write early Mongolic linguistic materials in Mongolia during the 6th to 7th centuries CE. Surviving examples of this script are found on monumental stelae, most notably the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (HT1) and the Brāhmī portions of the Bugut inscription.

According to epigraphical and linguistic analyses, particularly the decipherment and systematic descriptions presented by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod, the script represents an abugida written vertically. The system distinguishes:

• 2 independent vowels (dang egesig / ᠳᠠᠩ ᠡᠭᠡᠰᠢᠭ)
• 3 dependent vowels (qariyatu egesig / ᠬᠠᠷᠢᠶᠠᠲᠤ ᠡᠭᠡᠰᠢᠭ), which comprise a total of 4 characters and express 6 sounds (3 strong/masculine and 3 weak/feminine vowels)
• 24 consonants with inherent vowels (egesigtü geigülügči / ᠡᠭᠡᠰᠢᠭᠲᠦ ᠭᠡᠢᠭᠦᠯᠦᠭᠴᠢ), which represent a total of 21 sounds.

The Alphabet (Writing System)

The Structure of Vowel Signs

The consonant phoneme system of the Proto-Mongolian language (after D. Tumurtogoo, reconstructed by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Comparative studies of the Mongolian Brahmi script and 'Phags-pa script (reconstructed by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod, 2025)

Comparison of the eight short vowels in Proto-Mongolian across different script systems (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Comparison of the 24 consonant signs and 21 sounds in the Mongolian Brahmi script (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Comparative analysis of vowel-consonant harmony rules for the syllables γa and ha in the Mongolian Brahmi script (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Origin, development, and historical influence of the Mongolian Brahmi script in Central Asia (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Independent vowels (dang egesig / ᠳᠠᠩ ᠡᠭᠡᠰᠢᠭ): There are 2 independent vowels. In the HT1 inscription, a and u appear as two independent vowels written as initial vowels before masculine (back) words; cf. anaqaya (Wo. 14), uqah (Wo. 11), uqaǰu (Wo. 12), and uqabar (Wo. 54). In accordance with Mongolian vowel harmony, the vowel a is pronounced and used in two distinct ways: it is articulated either as a back vowel (masculine) a or as a front vowel (feminine) e.

Dependent vowels (qariyatu egesig / ᠬᠠᠷᠢᠶᠠᠲᠤ ᠡᠭᠡᠰᠢᠭ): There are 3 dependent vowels (plus 1 additional special character -ü). A distinction is made between three dependent back/masculine vowels (-ï, -o, -u) and three dependent front/feminine vowels (-i, -ö, -ü). These are written both within and at the end of a syllable. A dependent vowel can only form an independent syllable in combination with consonants or with the base grapheme a; cf. ba, be, bï, bi, bo, bu, bö, bü.

The independent initial vowel a (in this context, this a-base grapheme functions as a voiceless null consonant, analogous to the letter a in the 'Phags-pa script) forms a distinct syllable when combined with the three dependent masculine vowels -ï, -o, -u and the three dependent feminine vowels -i, -ö, -ü. In his research, Hurcabaatur Solonggod concluded that the initial vowel of a word in the Mongolian Brahmi script is comparable to that of the 'Phags-pa script due to structural correspondences. When the vowel sign a is combined with the dependent back (masculine) vowels -ï, -o, the initial vowels ï, o are formed. The same rule applies to the dependent front (feminine) vowels -i, -ö, -ü, thereby producing the feminine initial vowels i, ö, ü. The underlying structural formation of vowels and consonants is identical in both the Mongolian Brahmi script and the 'Phags-pa script. The seven initial vowel syllables of the Mongolian Brahmi script are: a, e, ï, i, o, u, ö, ü.

The Structure of Consonant Signs

Comparison of the 24 consonant signs and 21 distinct sounds in the Mongolian Brahmi script.

There are altogether 24 consonants (consonants with inherent vowels):

• 16 neutral consonants: These possess the inherent vowels [a] and [e] and are combined according to consonant harmony. They comprise: n (2×), b, p (2×), m, l, s, š, t, d, č, ǰ, y, and r (2×).
• Masculine consonants: In the Mongolian Brahmi script, words are constructed strictly in accordance with vowel and consonant harmony (gender distinction). The two masculine consonants γ(a) and h(a) can only occur in combination with the back masculine vowels -ï, -o, -u. These two consonants carry the inherent vowel a, as seen in qaγan (Wo. 3) and hanï (Wo. 57). Likewise, the masculine syllabic sign ka (qa) carries the inherent vowel a; cf. qaγan (Wo. 3).
• Feminine consonants: The two feminine consonants g(e) and k(e) may only be combined with the front feminine vowels -i, -ö, -ü, as seen in kügbü (Wo. 23) and kergin (Wo. 49). These two consonants carry the inherent vowel e, as seen in tügeniye (Wo. 60) and kergin (Wo. 49).
• Special consonant ŋ (ng): The consonant ŋ (ng) cannot form an independent syllable with dependent vowels. It is written exclusively at the end of a harmonic syllable. In Mongolian philology, this position is referred to as enggelge; cf. γang (Wo. 29).
• The masculine syllabic sign ka (qa) likewise carries the inherent vowel a, as in qaγan (Wo. 3).
• Foreign consonants (w and v): The two consonants w and v are frequently employed in loanwords, such as in tüwer (Wo. 30) or bodisattva (Wo. 6).

Special Features of the Mongolian Brahmi Script

Comparison of the vocalic and consonantal harmony rules of the syllables γa/ha in the Mongolian Brahmi script:

Feature	Characteristic	Reference
Direction of writing	Vertical from top to bottom; columns arranged from right to left.
Positional variants	None. Characters maintain identical shapes at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of a word.
Independent vowels	Only a and u occur initially. a and e share the same base glyph (distinguished strictly by vowel harmony).
Inherent vowels	Consonant glyphs possess an inherent vowel: 16 are gender-neutral ([a]/[e]), 3 are purely masculine ([a]), and 2 are purely feminine ([e]).
Dependent vowels	Strict distinction by gender: masculine (-ï, -o, -u) and feminine (-i, -ö, -ü).
Vowel quantity	Reflects Proto-Mongolian phonology with 8 short vowels; no long vowels or phonemic diphthongs.
Special characters	Five regional characters absent in Indian Brahmi: ha, γa, qa, wa, and ng.
Syllable structure	Accommodates V, CV, VC, and CVC patterns. No direct consonant clusters without an intervening vowel.
Word separation	Discrete words are demarcated by horizontal dividing strokes.
Syntax	Strict Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) sentence structure, fully analogous to Classical Mongolian.

Origin and Development

Origin, Development, and Influence of the Mongolian Brahmi Script

The Mongolian Brahmi script is a regional adaptation and descendant of the Indian Gupta Brahmi script, which in turn derives from the ancient Indian Brahmi script (an Abugida originally used for Sanskrit and other languages) dating back to the 3rd century BC. The origin of the characters and signs of the Mongolian Brahmi script is ancient: it developed from Gupta Brahmi, rooted ultimately in Ashoka Brahmi (the Sanskrit Abugida of the Mauryan period before the common era). Around 400 AD, Gupta Brahmi differentiated into regional variants and spread northward across the Himalayan mountain passes and through the Tarim Basin into Tibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan.

Between the 4th and 6th centuries AD, various peoples and polities across the Tarim Basin concurrently utilized six related regional variants of the Brahmi script family:

• Khotan Brahmi (Khotanese Saka; Chinese: 于阗 / 和田)
• Tocharian Brahmi (Tocharian; Chinese: 吐火罗语)
• Tumshuqese Brahmi (Tumshuqese; Chinese: 图木舒克语)
• Sogdian Brahmi (Sogdian; Chinese: 粟特语)
• Uyghur Brahmi (Old Uyghur; Chinese: 回鹘语)
• Mongolian Brahmi (Proto-Mongolian; Chinese: 蒙古语)

The designations Khotan, Tocharian, Tumshuqese, Sogdian, Uyghur, and Mongolian denote the respective language of each historical nation. In this context, a specific "Brahmi script" designates the regional repertoire of Brahmi characters and signs adapted by an ethnic group to its own linguistic phonology by creating modified or innovative graphemes to express local phonetic values. The preceding ethnonym designates the spoken language, while "Brahmi script" identifies the overarching paleographic writing system.

Inscriptions of the Mongolian Brahmi Script

To date, only three monumental inscriptions written in the Mongolian Brahmi script are known. All of them date from the late 6th to early 7th centuries AD, were discovered across the Mongolian steppe, and are preserved today in Mongolia.

The Bugut Inscription

The bilingual Bugut inscription is among the oldest stone monuments erected by early steppe polities (dated to 571–582 AD). It was inscribed in the Sogdian language and script on three sides and in the Proto-Mongolian language and Mongolian Brahmi script on the fourth side. The sections written in Mongolian Brahmi were deciphered for the first time by Dieter Maue, after which Alexander Vovin analyzed and translated segments of the underlying Mongolic text. The original stele is currently preserved at the Regional Museum of Arkhangai Province in Tsetserleg, Mongolia.

Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi (HT1)

The Khüis Tolgoi inscription stele (HT1), photographed and digitally reconstructed by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod

Paleographic reconstruction and second reading ("Recovery B") of the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (HT1) by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod (2018)

The Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi (HT1) was epigraphically deciphered in 2017–2018 by Dieter Maue, followed by initial linguistic analysis and historical commentary by Alexander Vovin. Following extensive on-site photographic field research and digital re-examination in Ulaanbaatar on August 8, 2018, Hurcabaatur Solonggod (L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod) presented a comprehensive re-reading (Recovery B) and systematically established the first comprehensive grammar of the Mongolian Brahmi script.

These investigations resulted in two distinct scholarly interpretations and translations of the continuous text. The monument is designated as a protected National Cultural Treasure of Mongolia, permanently exhibited at the Chinggis Khaan National Museum in Ulaanbaatar, and was submitted in 2025 for inclusion in the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme.

The Khüis Tolgoi Inscription (HT1)

Restoration and paleographic reconstruction of the original text of the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (HT1) by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod (2018):

• (Wo. 1–7): biti ner qaγan digin šinin bodisatva töröha(e)
• (Wo. 8–14): qaγan buda qaγan-u uqah uqaǰu(12) hïrï anaqaya
• (Wo. 15–23): …bidin ǰaha bodï bigiye ner beyi doluǰaǰu kügbü
• (Wo. 24–34): biti ǰïlo nar qara naya γang tüwer pürör čičiri pügtig nelen
• (Wo. 35–44): niri qaγan-na qato nar degid niri qaγan türüg qaγan
• (Wo. 45–52): uča dor tayïǰu(47) hïrï kergin barγo pahïruhačï kigbiǰü
• (Wo. 53–58): tügeǰü (53) uqabar nar qaγan hanï ǰulaba(58)
• (Wo. 59–61): tünü tügeniye tüwer
• (Wo. 62–69): …dïsatva ti qaton qaγan pügtigči šinin bodïsatva töröh(e) qaγan
• (Wo. 70–79): dolaǰaǰu lo(la) uča-da bitigin qaγan-hï tüwer ner qaγan töröh(e) qaγa-nu-na…
• (Wo. 80–89): pada niri qaγan türüg qaγan göǰin ubïǰü ǰulabaǰu darqad ǰeyibi
• (Wo. 90–100): uh bitig... seg paγ (paγa)…. ǰa(ǰu)… darqan bitibe qa

English Translation (HT1)

English translation of the continuous text of the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (HT1) according to L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod:

1. We thought of the new Khagan, who will be born with the holy power of Bodhisattva, and who should come from the lineage of the Khagans and of the prince members Digin; in doing so, we commemorated the origin of the Buda Khagan. [Wo. 1–12]
2. All seven members—(1) Hiri, (2) Anakaya, (3) […], (4) Bidin, (5) Jaha, (6) Bodi, (7) Bigiye—agreed with it. [Wo. 13–23]
3. We, the leaders who came forth for the ancestral sacrificial ceremony, have built together with the Black Naya, Gang Tüwer, all the tents and dwellings. [Wo. 24–34]
4. The noble wives and royal kinsmen of Niri Khagan and Türüg Khagan carried out the ancestral sacrifice. [Wo. 35–47]
5. The female ritual specialist Kergin of the Hiri clan and the caller of ancestral spirits, Pahiruhači of the Bargo clan, performed the sacred dance and distributed the offerings. [Wo. 48–53]
6. The sages ignited the ancestral memorial fires for the Great Khagan and the sovereign Khans. [Wo. 54–58]
7. tünü… [Wo. 59] dolaǰaǰu… [Wo. 70] (undeciphered / untranslated segment).
8. lo… [Wo. 71] qaγa-nu-na… [Wo. 79] (undeciphered / untranslated segment).
9. We ignited the ancestral memorial fires for the memory and legacy of Niri Khagan and Türüg Khagan. [Wo. 80–87]
10. The scribe Darqad Jeyibi inscribed this sacred stele: …seg pag ǰu… ka. [Wo. 88–100]

Scholarly Notes

• The exact epigraphic decipherment, transliteration, and linguistic commentary on all 100 Brahmi words were established in Proto-Mongolian and published in the monograph Proto-Mongolian Language 1400 Years Ago (Cologne, 2019).
• Words 59–79 (lines 7–9 of the inscription) represent severely weathered segments and remain subject to ongoing paleographic restoration.

The Khüis Tolgoi Inscription (HT2)

A preliminary reading and transcription of the HT2 inscription by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod:

Preliminary reading and transliteration of the Khüis Tolgoi II inscription (HT2) by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod

A preliminary reading and transcription of the HT2 inscription by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod:

Due to its heavily weathered and fractured surface, the Khüis Tolgoi 2 (HT2) inscription has not yet been systematically analyzed or fully deciphered. An initial decipherment attempt was made by Hurcabaatur Solonggod in 2019, who successfully identified and transcribed approximately 30 words and graphemes in his monograph.

The continuous narrative content, grammatical syntax, and broader historical context of the HT2 text remain subjects of ongoing epigraphic research. The monument is currently preserved at the Institute of Archaeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences (MAS) in Ulaanbaatar.

Syllable Structure of the Mongolian Brahmi Script

Analysis of the Syllable Structure of HT1

Syllabic structural analysis of the first line (words 1–7) of the Khüis Tolgoi inscription HT1 (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Comparative analysis of the Brahmi sign No. 2 [b] and the structural syllabic formation of consonants (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

Syllable-initial and syllable-final consonant graphemes in the Mongolian Brahmi script (by L. Qurčabaγatur Solongγod)

The study of syllable structure and its diachronic development forms the foundation for reconstructing the root, stem, and morpheme structure of Early Mongolic and determining the phonemic distribution in modern Mongolic languages, as established by D. Tumurtogoo. For Proto-Mongolian, he identified four primary syllable structures within roots, stems, and affixes, classified systematically into open and closed syllables.

In the Mongolian Brahmi script (particularly as witnessed in the Khüis Tolgoi inscription, HT1), these four primary structures (V, CV, VC, and CVC) operate under a rigorous set of graphematic and phonotactic rules:

Typology of Syllable Structures

• Open syllables (terminating in a vowel):
  • V (Pure vocalic syllable): e.g., uqaǰu (Wo. 12)
  • CV (Consonant + Vowel): e.g., bičibe (Wo. 99)
• Closed syllables (terminating in a consonant):
  • VC (Vowel + Consonant): e.g., uh (Wo. 90)
  • CVC (Consonant + Vowel + Consonant): e.g., barγo (Wo. 50)

Four Fundamental Orthographic Rules of Syllable Formation

1. Strict Gender Distinction (Vowel Harmony): Syllable composition and suffixation strictly observe the grammatical gender harmony: masculine (utilizing the back vowels -ï, -o, -u) and feminine (utilizing the front vowels -i, -ö, -ü).
2. Inherent Syllabic Base and Absence of Consonant Clusters: Every bare consonant sign inherently carries a vowel and constitutes a distinct CV syllable by itself (for instance, the character n inherently represents na or ne). Consonants are never stacked or ligatured into consonantal clusters without an explicit vowel sign in the orthography.
3. Vowel Interposition in Morphological Formation: When two consonant signs are inscribed sequentially within a word, they are read as two separate syllables (CV-CV, e.g., pada, Wo. 80). In morphological compounding, a dependent vowel marker is affixed to mediate between segments.
4. Loss of Inherent Vowel in Closed Syllables: When two consonants form a composite structural unit (such as in closed derivational or inflectional syllables), the terminal consonant loses its inherent vowel and functions phonologically as a bare coda consonant (e.g., the human plural suffix -nar / -ner).

Structural Comparison of CV Syllable Formation in HT1

Structural Comparison of Brahmi Sign No. 2 (b) and Consonant Structure

To systematically understand the precise mechanics of CV (consonant + vowel) syllable formation across the 24 consonants in the Khüis Tolgoi inscription (HT1), a direct structural comparison among different writing systems is instructive.

The analysis provides a three-tiered comparative perspective by examining the correspondence between:

1. The Mongolian Brahmi syllabic sign,
2. The Classical Uyghur-Mongolian script syllable, and
3. The modern Cyrillic Mongolian syllable.

Through this comparative framework, the phonotactic and graphematic generation of CV syllables can be traced systematically across historical stages of Mongolic.

Initial and Terminal Consonant Signs in the Mongolian Brahmi Syllable

The underlying mechanics of syllabification can be illustrated through consonant b-, demonstrating its combinations across the vowel inventory (both masculine and feminine sets).

In this system, syllable-initial consonants carry either an inherent vowel or attach a dependent vowel sign (forming open syllables), whereas syllable-final consonants (codas) lose their inherent vowel to form closed syllables. A complete overview of the 24 consonants and their corresponding CV and CVC syllabic matrices is documented across the digital research archive and accompanying corpus plates.

Bibliography

• Maue, Dieter (2010). "Non-Indian Brāhmī scripts along the Silk Roads". In: Studies on the Inner Asian Languages, Vol. 25.
• Maue, Dieter (2018). "Signs and Sounds". Journal Asiatique. 306 (2): 291–301. doi:10.2143/JA.306.2.3285620.
• Maue, Dieter (2019). "The Brāhmī Script of the Bugut Stele". Journal Asiatique. 307 (1): 109–119. doi:10.2143/JA.307.1.3286343.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur (2019). Proto-Mongolian Language 1400 Years Ago – Studies of the Hüis Tolgoi Inscription (HT1) (in Traditional Mongolian: 1400 ǰil-un emüneki ebüge mongγol kele – küisü toluγai-yin bičgesü-yin (HT1) sudulul; Series No. 1). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-11-6.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur (2020). Proto-Mongolian Language 1400 Years Ago – Studies of the Hüis Tolgoi Inscription (HT1) (in Cyrillic Mongolian: 1400 жилийн өмнөх өвөг монгол хэл – «Хүйс толгойн бичээс» (НТ1)-ний судлал; Series No. 4). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-05-5.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur (2021a). Proto Mongolian Language – Mongolian Brahmi Script (in Traditional Mongolian: ebüge mongγol kele – mongγol brahmi bičig; Series No. 6). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-04-8.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur (2021b). A Fast Learning Textbook for the Mongolian Brahmi Script (in Cyrillic Mongolian: Монгол брахми бичгийг түргэн сурах бичиг; Series No. 7). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-07-9.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur (2026). Mongolian Brahmi Script (Vol. I): Syllabic and Word Structure (Series No. 10). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-15-4.
• Solongγod, L. Qurčabaγatur; Solongγod, Ch. Adengga (2025). The Mongolian Brahmi Script and the Inscription of Khüis Tolgoi (HT1). Cologne: Elias Verlag IMoFiF e.V. ISBN 978-3-943553-08-6.
• Tumurtogoo, Domii (2022). Mongolian Language Studies, Vol. V: The Historical Grammar (in Mongolian). Institute for Mongolian Studies, National University of Mongolia (NUM). ISBN 978-9919-504-82-3.
• Vovin, Alexander (2018). "An Interpretation of the Khüis Tolgoi Inscription". Journal Asiatique. 306 (2): 303–313. doi:10.2143/JA.306.2.3285621.
• Vovin, Alexander (2019). "Groping in the Dark: The First Attempt to Interpret the Bugut Brāhmī Inscription". Journal Asiatique. 307 (1): 121–134. doi:10.2143/JA.307.1.3286344.