Baituan

The Baituan (Chinese: 白團; pinyin: Báituán; Japanese: 白団, Paidan or Baidan, lit. "White Group") was a secret military advisory group consisting mainly of former officers of the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy, who served the Republic of China Armed Forces in Taiwan at the request of Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China.

Between 1949 and 1969, a total of 83 members served under the leadership of Tomita Naoaki [ja] (a Major General in the Imperial Japanese Army, known in China as Pai Hung-liang or Bai Hongliang).

Prior to the deployment of the Baituan, some former Japanese military officers such as Masanobu Tsuji, Raishirō Sumita [ja], and Hiroshi Nemoto had already participated in the Kuomintang (KMT) forces as military advisors. Although they did not join the Baituan itself, they similarly contributed to assisting the Republic of China.^[1]

Background

Following World War II and the Second Sino-Japanese War, conflict between the Communist forces and the Nationalist (KMT) forces reignited in China. Although various negotiations were held to avoid full-scale civil war, the Chinese Civil War resumed.

Exploiting public aversion to war and resentment against corruption within the Nationalist government, the Communist forces gained widespread popular support. Backed by military aid from the Soviet Union, they gradually gained the upper hand over Chiang Kai-shek's KMT forces, which lost support from the United States. Through the Three Campaigns [zh] from September 1948 to January 1949, the Communist forces achieved decisive victories, occupying major cities including Beiping, Nanjing, and Shanghai. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China (PRC) was established.

Meanwhile, the weakened Republic of China government, unable to effectively resist the People's Liberation Army (PLA), decided to retreat to Taiwan. It mobilized remaining military forces, national assets, and private property to the island. In December 1949, the central government relocated its administrative organs to Taipei, designating it as the provisional capital.

The PRC government initially considered a military invasion of Taiwan. However, because the ROC Navy and Air Force remained intact, and due to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, which required the PLA to divert troops, military actions against Taiwan were temporarily halted.

With the signing of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty in 1954, United States military support for the ROC government resumed. The U.S. sought to contain the spread of communism along a defense perimeter stretching from the 38th parallel north on the Korean Peninsula to the 17th parallel north in Vietnam, with the Taiwan Strait serving as a key frontline.

In September 1954, the PLA launched artillery bombardments against ROC forces on Kinmen, and in January 1955 attacked and occupied the Yijiangshan Islands. From February 8 to February 11, under the escort of the U.S. Navy, the Battle of Dachen Archipelago was executed, abandoning ROC strongholds in the Dachen Islands, Zhejiang.

In August 1958, the PLA initiated heavy artillery bombardments against the ROC garrison on Kinmen (see Second Taiwan Strait Crisis). On September 11, ROC forces repelled Chinese air attacks and launched counterstrikes, including the destruction of Xiamen railway station. The United States declared its support for Taiwan, with President Dwight D. Eisenhower stating that China was clearly attempting an invasion of Taiwan, and initiated military assistance. Taiwan successfully defended the Kinmen region. On October 6, citing "humanitarian considerations," China lifted the blockade of Kinmen and Matsu Islands and declared a one-week unilateral ceasefire, avoiding direct confrontation with the U.S. Following the crisis, the Baituan continued to instruct ROC military personnel until 1969. (Although not a member of the Baituan, Hiroshi Nemoto served as a lieutenant general in the ROC military and achieved notable success in the Battle of Guningtou; these independent advisors returned to Japan around the time of the Baituan's activities).^[1]

Developments and Escalation

In September 1959, former Japanese Prime Minister Tanzan Ishibashi visited the PRC in a private capacity and met with Premier Zhou Enlai, advocating a peace alliance among Japan, China, the U.S., and the Soviet Union to break Cold War tensions. Zhou agreed to the proposal and pledged not to use military force against Taiwan (Ishibashi–Zhou Joint Statement).

In 1962, viewing the severe economic weakening of the PRC caused by the failure of the Great Leap Forward as an opportunity to retake the mainland, Chiang Kai-shek initiated plans for a military counteroffensive known as Project National Glory. However, fearing escalation into a full-scale regional conflict, the Kennedy administration expressed opposition, and no large-scale military action ultimately took place. Aside from sporadic naval engagements in 1965 such as the Battle of Dong-Yin, the Battle of Dongshan, and the Battle of East Chongwu, no large-scale military battles occurred across the strait, though state of tension persisted.

Outside the Taiwan Strait, the PRC regime annexed Tibet in 1950 and provided military assistance to North Vietnam.

In 1964, China conducted its first successful nuclear test, making a ROC counteroffensive on the mainland virtually impossible. Nevertheless, Chiang Kai-shek remained committed to the goal of recovering the mainland until his death in 1975.

Diplomatically, an increasing number of newly independent nations in Asia and Africa recognized the PRC, elevating it as a third major power independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Conversely, while the PRC's economy stagnated, Taiwan experienced rapid economic growth known as the Taiwan Miracle, bolstered in part by procurement demand during the Vietnam War.^[1]

Organization and Education

Yuanshan Officer Training Corps (1950–1952)

Regular Class: The Regular Class was the first educational program managed by the Baituan. Ten terms were conducted, training a total of 4,071 officers ranking from Second Lieutenant to Major. The curriculum focused on field manual drills, tactics, communications, intelligence, military history, and thorough anti-communist political education.
Advanced Class: The Advanced Class was aimed at officers ranked Colonel and above, primarily graduates of the Whampoa Military Academy or the Central Military Academy. Instruction centered on military operations, tactical principles, map maneuvers, wargaming, intelligence communications, military history, high command staff exercises, and logistics. Three terms were held, graduating 640 officers.
Personnel Training Class and Combined Logistics Education: Lectures aimed at active military leaders and personnel staff. The Combined Logistics Education specifically targeted officers of the Combined Service Forces (the logistics branch of the Ministry of National Defense). Two terms of personnel training were held with 500 participants each. Nearly all high-ranking officers of the Combined Service Forces, totaling about 200 personnel including the commander-in-chief, attended the logistics program.
Naval Education: At the Naval Staff College in Zuoying, courses were held on ship handling, map maneuvers, and fleet exercises. Two terms were held, training 57 officers.

Shipai Practical Society (1952–1965)

Following the dispatch of the official U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group, the organization relocated from Yuanshan to Shipai to conduct advanced staff training. It was colloquially referred to as the "Underground University." It conducted 12 terms of the Joint Operations Research Class for officers ranked Lieutenant Colonel and above, 3 terms of the Scientific Military Officer Reserve Training Class for officers ranked Major and below, as well as 4 terms of Military History Class, 6 terms of Advanced Military Science Class, and 3 terms of Tactical Education Class. An unwritten rule existed within the ROC military at the time that "one could not be promoted to division commander or above without having graduated from the Shipai Practical Society."^[1]

Army Command and General Staff College (1965–1968)

Upon the return of most Baituan members to Japan, five remaining members assisted in reforming the training curriculum at the Command and General Staff College under its commandant, Chiang Wei-kuo. They provided instruction through special instructor training classes, tactical wargame guidance classes for deputy division commanders and regimental commanders, and umpire training classes to improve evaluation during military exercises.

In December 1968, operations ceased. In January 1969, all remaining members except leader Tomita returned to Japan, and a formal dissolution ceremony was held in Tokyo in February.^[1]

Logistics and Support: Fuji Club

The Fuji Club was a military research institution established in Iidabashi, Tokyo in the autumn of 1952 to draft training curricula for the Baituan. Under the leadership of Okamura, Oikawa, and Ogasawara, former Army personnel included Takushiro Hattori, Kazuo Horiba, Susumu Nishiura, Tomikaku Imaoka, Masaji Sakakibara, Seiichi Tokō, and Jirō Nitta; former Navy personnel included Toshitane Takata, Toshikazu Ōmae, Sutejirō Onoda, and Sumitaka Nagai. The club conducted research on military history, strategy, and tactics, collecting international intelligence and analyzing national defense issues. Out of 7,000 collected military texts, over 5,000 research materials were produced and sent to Taiwan to support the Baituan's educational activities. Key figures such as Hattori also traveled directly to Taiwan on multiple occasions to give lectures and confer with high-ranking ROC officials. The club remained active until around 1963.^[1]

Key Figures

Recruiters

Yasuji Okamura (岡村寧次; Commander-in-Chief of the China Expeditionary Army, General in the Imperial Japanese Army)
Raishirō Sumita (澄田睞四郎; Commander of the 1st Army, Lieutenant General)
Jiro Sogawa [ja] (十川次郎; Commander of the 5th Army, Lieutenant General)
Kiyoshi Ogasawara (小笠原清; Staff Officer of the China Expeditionary Army, Lieutenant Colonel)
Koshirō Oikawa (及川古志郎; Military Councillor, Admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy)

Primary Members

Tomita Naoaki (富田直亮; Chinese name: Pai Hung-liang; General in the ROC Army, Major General in the IJA) – Group Leader, Chief Instructor
Chikao Yamamoto [ja] (Chinese name: Shuai Benyuan; Rear Admiral in the IJN) – Deputy Group Leader, Deputy Chief Instructor
Ken Hongo (本郷健; Chinese name: Fan Jian) – Deputy Chief Instructor
Genzo Yoshikawa (吉川源三; Chinese name: Zhou Zhiche; Lieutenant Colonel in the IJA)
Kinjiro Tokaji (戸梶金次郎; Chinese name: Zhong Dajun; Major in the IJA)
Hidetetsu Okamoto (岡本秀徹; Chinese name: Chen Wanquan)
Rin'ei Teruya (照屋林蔚; Chinese name: Liu Dequan)
Kazuo Nakao (中尾一男; Chinese name: Liu Taiyuan)
Tadao Sakai (酒井忠雄; Chinese name: Zheng Zhong; Lieutenant Colonel in the IJA)

Fuji Club Members

Takushiro Hattori (服部卓四郎; Chief of the Operations Section, Army General Staff; Colonel in the IJA)
Kazuo Horiba [ja] (堀場一雄; Colonel in the IJA)
Susumu Nishiura [ja] (西浦進; Colonel in the IJA)
Toshitane Takata [ja] (高田利種; Rear Admiral in the IJN)
Toshikazu Ōmae (大前敏一; Captain in the IJN)
Sutejirō Onoda (小野田捨次郎; Captain in the IJN)

Others

Hiroshi Nemoto (根本博; Chinese name: Lin Baoyuan; Commander of the Mongolian Garrison Army, Lieutenant General in the IJA)
Hiromasa Ao [ja] (阿尾博政; Served as secretary to Tomita Naoaki in his later years; founded the Baituan Memorial Association in 2014)

Assessment and Evaluation

Chiang Kai-shek held the military advisory capabilities of the Baituan in high regard, involving them not only in rebuilding the military forces shattered during the civil war, but also in planning exercises, mobilization programs, operational strategies during the First and Second Taiwan Strait Crises, and deliberations for Project National Glory. The Baituan's activities continued even after the arrival of the official U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group. Chiang Kai-shek personally attended lectures by the Baituan and met with its members on numerous occasions. Taiwanese historian Dai Guohui noted that "it is clear that the military advisory group Chiang Kai-shek truly placed his trust in for rebuilding the military was the Japanese advisory group, not the American one."

At the opening of the Yuanshan Officer Training Corps, Chiang Kai-shek instructed his officers as follows:^[2]

Among Eastern nations, Japan was the quickest to achieve military progress. Their spirit of perseverance, hard work, and habits of diligence and thrift share common ground with our nation. Therefore, we have invited Japanese instructors. They will surely help correct your past shortcomings.

Japan fought against us for eight long years. They invaded us and were our enemies. You may wonder why we should take as instructors those whom we defeated. If you think that way, it is an erroneous perspective...

Japanese instructors have come to Taiwan without self-interest, solely to save the Republic of China. Western operational methods rely on abundant material resources, which do not suit our national conditions, and they overemphasize technology while neglecting spirit.

The U.S. government viewed the involvement of former Imperial Japanese military officers in the Nationalist military as problematic and repeatedly requested Chiang Kai-shek to dissolve the Baituan, but Chiang refused.

References

1 2 3 4 5 6 中村祐悦著『白団 : 台湾軍を作った日本軍将校たち』芙蓉書房ほか
↑ 野嶋 2014, p. 180

Bibliography

Yuetsu Nakamura (中村祐悦). 『新版白団 - 台湾軍をつくった日本軍将校たち』 Fuyo Shobo Publishing (芙蓉書房出版), 2006. ISBN 978-4829503836
Hiromasa Ao [ja]. 『自衛隊秘密諜報機関 ―青桐の戦士と呼ばれて』 Kodansha, 2009. ISBN 978-4062154635
Tsuyoshi Nojima [in Japanese] (April 2014). ラスト・バタリオン蒋介石と日本軍人たち. Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-06-217801-3.

External links

Written Reply to the Question Submitted by House of Councillors Member Karoku Hosokawa Regarding the Volunteer Army (Cabinet Answer No. 146) (参議院議員細川嘉六君提出義勇軍に関する質問に対する答弁書内閣参甲第一四六号) – House of Councillors (November 25, 1949) (in Japanese)
"The Story of Baituan" by Kaikosha (｢白団｣物語 of 偕行社) – Contains round-table discussions and historical records from Baituan participants. (in Japanese)

[白団-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 中村祐悦著『白団 : 台湾軍を作った日本軍将校たち』芙蓉書房ほか

[2] 野嶋 2014, p. 180

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