Portal:Language

Introduction

Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time. Human languages possess the properties of productivity and displacement, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on social convention and is acquired through learning.

A 2026 estimate of the number of "spoken or signed" languages remaining was around 7,500 (half of which are described as "endangered"), representing an estimated ninety-percent reduction over the past several thousand years. Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken, signed, or both; however, any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, writing, whistling, signing, or braille. In other words, human language is modality-independent, but written or signed language is a way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures.

Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes, and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.

The scientific study of language is called linguistics. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between language and thought, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since Gorgias and Plato in ancient Greek civilization. Thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) have argued that language originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Major figures in contemporary linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky. (Full article...)

Outline of linguistics • Index of language articles

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Sumerian (Sumerian: 𒅴𒂠, romanized: eme-gir₁₅, lit. 'native language') was the language of ancient Sumer. It is the oldest attested language, dating back to at least 3100 BC, perhaps earlier. It is a local language isolate, thus unrelated to any other known language, that was spoken exclusively in ancient Mesopotamia, in the area that is now modern-day Iraq.

Sumerian is read from left to right, from the top; however early inscriptions were read top to bottom from the right. (Full article...)

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... that Welsh-language activist Joseff Gnagbo came to Wales as a refugee from Ivory Coast?
... that Hostage, a book written by Eli Sharabi after surviving 491 days in Hamas captivity, became the fastest-selling book in Hebrew-language publishing history?
... that speakers of the Jorá language were massacred, rounded up in villages, and sold into slavery during the 1940s?
... that the first decipherment of a dead language in modern times was of Palmyrene inscriptions?
... that Prey is the first feature film to have a full Comanche language dub?
... that the extinct Maipure language had a separate category of nouns for things that cannot be possessed, such as astronomical objects?

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...that young people are more literate in Hakha Chin than their elder counterparts?
...that there are at least 10 Malay-based creoles?
...that the extinct Greenlandic Norse language is believed to have left loanwords in Kalaallisut?
...that Russian is the most widely spoken foreign language in Armenia?

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Traditional

The modern Chinese varieties make frequent use of what are called classifiers or measure words. One use of classifiers is when a noun is qualified by a numeral or demonstrative. In the Chinese equivalent of a phrase such as "three books" or "that person", it is normally necessary to insert an appropriate classifier between the numeral/demonstrative and the noun. For example, in Standard Chinese, the first of these phrases would be: (Full article...)

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Language News

1 October 2026 – Immigration to Japan

Japan tightens permanent residency requirements for foreign nationals, introducing above-average income and basic Japanese-language standards while raising application fees twentyfold as part of broader changes to immigration policy. (AFP)

24 September 2026 – Hijab and burqa controversies in Europe, Islam in Italy

Italy's government approves a decree capping foreign students with limited Italian proficiency at 30% per classroom and banning burqas and niqabs in schools. The measure takes effect immediately but requires parliamentary approval within 60 days. (AP)

20 September 2026 – France–Iran relations

Iranian authorities close down a French language centre affiliated with the French embassy in Tehran under a judicial order. Prosecutors say it operated without a licence and conducted activities against Iranian culture and national security. (Reuters)

20 August 2026 – Sudanese civil war

The Sudan People's Liberation Movement–North led by Abdelaziz al-Hilu regains control of Kauda, South Kordofan, following two days of clashes with Otoro fighters. (Sudan Tribune)

8 August 2026 – Sudanese civil war

A tribe leader in the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan accuses the Sudan People's Liberation Movement–North of launching attacks on Otoro villages in Kauda. Additionally, four aid workers are reported to be detained. (Sudan Tribune)

19 July 2026 – AI boom

Mathematician and Anthropic employee Levent Alpöge presents an explicit counterexample to the Jacobian conjecture in three-dimensional space that disproves the