Adjectives in Circassian
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From a morphological perspective, adjectives in the Circassian languages (Adyghe and Kabardian) share many characteristics with nouns. A key feature of Circassian grammar is phrase-final affixation: when an adjective modifies a noun, the noun itself usually remains in its bare stem form. The grammatical markers for number (plurality) and case (role in the sentence) attach to the end of the entire noun phrase—which usually means they attach to the adjective.[1]
Adjectives are categorized into two main types:
- Qualitative adjectives: Describe qualities (e.g., "good", "white", "tall"). These usually follow the noun.
- Relative (Material) adjectives: Describe material or relation (e.g., "wood", "iron"). These usually precede the noun and do not change form.[2]
The two literary Circassian languages, Adyghe (West Circassian) and Kabardian (East Circassian), behave almost identically with respect to adjectives; the differences are mostly in the specific lexical and phonological shapes of the words and a handful of suffixes. Where the two languages share an example or explanation, they are presented side by side below.
Phrase-Final Affixation
[edit]Unlike in languages like Spanish or Russian where both the noun and adjective agree (change form), in Circassian only the last word in the phrase takes the suffix.[3]
Example 1: Qualitative Adjective (Follows Noun) Here, the noun is "girl" (пшъэшъэ in Adyghe, пщащэ in Kabardian) and the adjective is дахэ (beautiful), which is shared by both languages.
| Number | Language | Phrase | Breakdown | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Adyghe | Пшъэшъэ дахэр | пшъэшъэ дахэ-р | girl beautiful-ABS | "The beautiful girl" |
| Kabardian | Пщащэ дахэр | пщащэ дахэ-р | girl beautiful-ABS | "The beautiful girl" | |
| Plural | Adyghe | Пшъэшъэ дахэхэр | пшъэшъэ дахэ-хэ-р | girl beautiful-PL-ABS | "The beautiful girls" |
| Kabardian | Пщащэ дахэхэр | пщащэ дахэ-хэ-р | girl beautiful-PL-ABS | "The beautiful girls" |
Example 2: Suffixal Adjective (Augmentative) Some adjectives function as suffixes themselves, like "large/big" (~шхо in Adyghe, ~шхуэ in Kabardian). The case and number markers still attach to the very end.
| Number | Language | Phrase | Breakdown | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Adyghe | Унэшхо | унэ-шхо | house-large | "A large house" |
| Kabardian | Унэшхуэр | унэ-шхуэ-р | house-large-ABS | "The large house" | |
| Plural | Adyghe | Унэшхохэр | унэ-шхо-хэ-р | house-large-PL-ABS | "The large houses" |
| Kabardian | Унэшхуэхэр | унэ-шхуэ-хэ-р | house-large-PL-ABS | "The large houses" |
Declension
[edit]When an adjective is used substantively (as a noun, e.g., "the white one"), it takes the standard noun case markers directly.[4]
Example: "White" (Фыжьы in Adyghe, Хужьы in Kabardian)
| Case | Adyghe | Kabardian | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Absolutive | фыжьыр | фыжьыхэр | хужьыр | хужьыхэр |
| Oblique / Ergative | фыжьым | фыжьыхэм | хужьым | хужьыхэм |
| Instrumental | фыжьы(м)кӏэ | фыжьыхэ(м)кӏэ | хужьы(м)кӏэ | хужьыхэ(м)кӏэ |
| Adverbial | фыжьэу | фыжьыхэу | хужьу | хужьыху |
Adjective Position Examples
[edit]| Type | Language | Phrase | Breakdown | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qualitative (Follows Noun) |
Adyghe | Кӏэлэ дэгъур | кӏэлэ дэгъу-р | boy good-ABS | "The good boy" |
| Kabardian | Щӏалэ дэгъур | щӏалэ дэгъу-р | boy good-ABS | "The good boy" | |
| Adyghe | Унэ лъагэм | унэ лъагэ-м | house high-ERG | "The high house (Erg/Obl)" | |
| Kabardian | Унэ лъагэм | унэ лъагэ-м | house high-ERG | "The high house (Erg/Obl)" | |
| Relative (Precedes Noun) |
Adyghe | Гъучӏ пӏэкӏорыр | гъучӏ пӏэкӏор-ыр | iron bed-ABS | "The iron bed" |
| Kabardian | Гъущӏ пӏэкӏорыр | гъущӏ пӏэкӏор-ыр | iron bed-ABS | "The iron bed" | |
| Adyghe | Пхъэ уатэмкӏэ | пхъэ уатэ-мкӏэ | wood hammer-INS | "Using the wooden hammer" | |
| Kabardian | Пхъэ уадэмкӏэ | пхъэ уадэ-мкӏэ | wood hammer-INS | "Using the wooden hammer" |
Usage in Sentences[5]
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Сэ непэ пшъэшъэ дахэ слъэгъугъэ. | I today girl beautiful saw | A O VERB | "I saw a beautiful girl today." |
| Kabardian | Сэ нобэ пщащэ дахэ слъэгъуащ. | I today girl beautiful saw | A O VERB | "I saw a beautiful girl today." |
| Adyghe | Тэ гъогу занкӏэм тырыкӏуагъ. | We road straight-OBL walked-on | S IO VERB | "We were walking on the straight road." |
| Kabardian | Дэ гъуэгу занщӏэм дырыкӏуащ. | We road straight-OBL walked-on | S IO VERB | "We were walking on the straight road." |
| Adyghe | Кӏэлэ кӏуачӏэр макӏо. | Boy strong-ABS goes | S VERB | "The strong boy is going." |
| Kabardian | Щӏалэ лъэщыр макӏуэ. | Boy strong-ABS goes | S VERB | "The strong boy is going." |
Comparison
[edit]Adjectives have comparative and superlative forms used to express degrees of quality.[6]
Comparative Degree Formed using the auxiliary word "more" (нахь in Adyghe, нэхъ in Kabardian).
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Ар ощ нахь лъагэ. | He you-than more high | "He is higher than you." |
| Kabardian | Ар абы нэхъ лъагэщ. | He that-one-than more high | "He is higher than that one." |
| Adyghe | Нахь ины хъугъэ. | More big became | "He became bigger." |
| Kabardian | Нэхъ ины хъуащ. | More big became | "He became bigger." |
| Adyghe | Нахь лӀэблан охъун фай. | More brave become must | "You must be braver." |
| Kabardian | Нэхъ лӀыгъэ къызхэбгъэлъын хуейщ. | More bravery show must | "You must be braver." |
Superlative Degree Formed using the auxiliary word "most/more than all" (анахь in Adyghe; анахь or янэхъ in Kabardian).
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Ар пшъашъэмэ анахь дахэ. | She girls-among most beautiful | "She is the most beautiful among the girls." |
| Kabardian | Ар пщащэмэ янэхъ дахэщ. | She girls-among most beautiful | "She is the most beautiful among the girls." |
| Adyghe | Ар зэкӏэмэ анахь лъагэ. | It all-among most high | "It is the highest." |
| Kabardian | Ар псоми янэхъ лъагэщ. | It all-among most high | "It is the highest." |
| Adyghe | Ар заужмэ анахь лъэшы. | He everyone-among most strong | "He is the strongest." |
| Kabardian | Ар псоми янэхъ лъэщщ. | He everyone-among most strong | "He is the strongest." |
Affixes
[edit]Various suffixes can be added to nouns and adjectives to modify their meaning (diminutives, augmentatives, intensifiers).[7]
Suffixes for Nouns
| Meaning | Adyghe suffix | Adyghe example | Kabardian suffix | Kabardian example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| new | ~кӏэ (~t͡ʃʼa) | унакӏэ (new house) | ~щӏэ (~ɕʼa) | унащӏэ (new house) |
| old | ~жъы (~ʐə) | унэжъы (old house) | ~жьы (~ʑə) | унэжьы (old house) |
| large/big | ~шхо (~ʃxʷa) | унэшхо (large house) | ~шхуэ (~ʃxʷa) | унэшхуэ (large house) |
| small | ~цӏыкӏу (~t͡sʼəkʷʼ) | унэцӏыкӏу (small house) | ~цӏыкӏу (~t͡sʼəkʷʼ) | унэцӏыкӏу (small house) |
| small/tiny | ~жъый (~ʐəj) | унэжъый (tiny house) | (no distinct Kabardian suffix; cf. ~цӏыкӏу "small") | |
Suffixes for Adjectives
| Meaning | Adyghe suffix | Adyghe example | Kabardian suffix | Kabardian example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| slightly | ~ӏо (~ʔʷa) | дыджыӏо (slightly bitter) | ~ӏуэ (~ʔʷa) | стырыӏуэ (slightly spicy) |
| too much/excessively | ~щэ (~ɕa) | дыджыщэ (too bitter) | ~щэ (~ɕa) | дыджыщэ (too bitter) |
| very | ~дэд (~dad) | дэгъудэд (very good) | ~дэд (~dad) | дэгъудэд (very good) |
| absolutely/completely | ~бз (~bz) | дэгъуабз (absolutely good) | (no standard Kabardian equivalent) | |
| truly/really | ~шъыпкъ (~ʂəpq) | дэгъушъыпкъ (really good) | (no standard Kabardian equivalent) | |
| kind of/ish | ~ашъу (~aːʃʷ) | дэгъуашъу (kind of good/good-ish) | (no standard Kabardian equivalent) | |
| quite/pretty | ~кӏай (~t͡ʃʼaːj) | дэгъукӏай (quite good) | ~кӏей (~t͡ʃʼej) | дэгъукӏей (pretty good) |
| lacking/less | ~нчъэ (~nt͡ʂa) | акъылынчъэ (mindless) | ~ншэ (~nʃa) | акъылыншэ (mindless) |
Examples
| Language | Sentence | Breakdown | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Мы джанэр оркӏэ иныӏо. | big-slightly | "This shirt is slightly big for you." |
| Kabardian | Мы джанэр уэркӏэ иныӏуэ. | big-slightly | "This shirt is slightly big for you." |
| Adyghe | Мы джанэр иныщэ. | big-too.much | "This shirt is too large." |
| Kabardian | Мы джанэр иныщэ. | big-too.much | "This shirt is too large." |
| Adyghe | Мы сурэтыр дэхэдэд. | beautiful-very | "This painting is very beautiful." |
| Kabardian | Мы сурэтыр дэхэдэд. | beautiful-very | "This painting is very beautiful." |
Opinion (Psychological Predicates)
[edit]To indicate that a quality is perceived by someone (an opinion or feeling), a prefix is added to the adjective (шӏо~ (ʃʷʼa~) in Adyghe, фӏэ~ (fʼa~) in Kabardian). This transforms the adjective into a verbal construction meaning "X is [ADJ] to Y".[8]
| Meaning | Adyghe (шӏо~) | Kabardian (фӏэ~) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base adjective | Derived form | Base adjective | Derived form | |
| pretty → "it is pretty to him/her" | дахэ | шӏодах | дахэ | фӏэдах |
| tasty → "it is tasty to him/her" | ӏэшӏу | шӏоӏэшӀу | ӏэфӏ | фӏэӏэфӏ |
| red → "it looks red to him/her" | плъыжьы | шӏоплъыжь | плъыжь | фӏэплъыжь |
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Кӏалэхэмэ ашӏодахэп сиджанэ. | Boys.ERG 3PL-OPINION-pretty-NEG my-shirt | "My shirt was not beautiful to the boys." |
| Kabardian | Щӏалэхэмэ яфӏэдахэкъым си джанэ. | Boys.ERG 3PL-OPINION-pretty-NEG my-shirt | "My shirt was not beautiful to the boys." |
| Adyghe | Мы мыӏэрысэм иуасэ пшӏолъапӏа? | ... its-cost 2SG-OPINION-expensive-Q | "Is this apple expensive to you?" |
| Kabardian | Мы мыӏэрысэм и уасэ пфӏэлъапӏэ? | ... its-cost 2SG-OPINION-expensive-Q | "Is this apple expensive to you?" |
Scaliness (Abstract Nouns)
[edit]The suffix ~гъэ (~ʁa) is appended to adjectives to turn them into abstract nouns representing the measure or quality itself (e.g., "length" from "long").[9]
| Meaning (adjective → abstract noun) | Adyghe | Kabardian | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base adjective | Derived noun | Base adjective | Derived noun | |
| long → length | кӏыхьэ | кӏыхьагъэ | кӏыхь | кӏыхьагъэ |
| fast → speed | псынкӏэ | псынкӏагъэ | псынщӏэ | псынщӏагъэ |
| hot → heat | фабэ | фэбагъэ | хуабэ | хуабагъэ |
| strong → strength | кӏуачӏэ | кӏочӏагъэ | лъэщ | лъэщыгъэ |
| wide/thick → width/thickness | ӏужъу | ӏужъугъэ | ӏув | ӏувыгъэ |
| beautiful → beauty | дахэ | дэхагъэ | дахэ | дэхагъэ |
| tasty → tastiness | ӏэшӏу | ӏэшӏугъэ | ӏэфӏ | ӏэфӏыгъэ |
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Пхъэм иӏужъугъэ 65 сантиметр. | Wood-OBL its-width 65 cm | "The wood's width is 65 centimeters." |
| Kabardian | Пхъэм и ӏувыгъэр 65 сантиметр. | Wood-OBL its-width 65 cm | "The wood's width is 65 centimeters." |
| Adyghe | Кӏалэм кӏочӏагъэ хэлъ. | Boy-OBL strength lies-in | "The boy has strength in him." |
| Kabardian | Щӏалэм лъэщыгъэ хэлъ. | Boy-OBL strength lies-in | "The boy has strength in him." |
State of the Adjective
[edit]The suffix ~гъакӏэ (~ʁaːt͡ʃʼa) forms nouns meaning "the state/essence of being X", which is distinct from the measurable scale marked by ~гъэ.[10]
| Meaning (adjective → state noun) | Adyghe | Kabardian | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base adjective | Derived noun | Base adjective | Derived noun | |
| long → lengthiness | кӏыхьэ | кӏыхьэгъакӏэ | кӏыхь | кӏыхьэгъакӏэ |
| pretty → prettiness | дахэ | дэхэгъакӏэ | дахэ | дэхэгъакӏэ |
| strong → strongness | кӏуачӏэ | кӏочӏэгъакӏэ | лъэщ | лъэщыгъакӏэ |
| good → goodness | дэгъу | шӏугъакӏэ | фӏы | фӏагъакӏэ |
| tasty → tastiness | ӏэшӏу | ӏэшӏугъакӏэ | ӏэфӏ | ӏэфӏыгъакӏэ |
| Language | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | Лӏыжъым ишӏугъакӏэ пае... | Old-man-OBL his-goodness-state due-to... | "Due to the old man's (inherent) goodness..." |
| Kabardian | Лӏыжьым и фӏагъакӏэ папщӏэ... | Old-man-OBL his-goodness-state due-to... | "Due to the old man's (inherent) goodness..." |
Bibliography
[edit]- Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G.
- Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
- Ranko Matasović, A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian): .
- Caucasus Studies 1 CIRCASSIAN Clause Structure Mukhadin Kumakhov & Karina Vamling
- Кумахов, М. А. Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство, 1964.
- Аркадьев, П. М.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. (ред.). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, 2009. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
- Яковлев, Н. Ф. Краткая грамматика кабардино-черкесского языка. Выпуск I. Синтаксис и морфология. Ворошиловск: Орджоникидзевское краевое издательство, 1938.
- Яковлев, Н. Ф. Грамматика литературного кабардино-черкесского языка. Москва - Ленинград: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1948.
- Абдоков, А. И. Фонетические и лексические параллели абхазско-адыгских языков. Нальчик, 1973.
- Шагиров, А. К. Этимологический словарь адыгских (черкесских) языков. А-Н. Москва: Издательство «Наука», 1977.
- Урыс, Хь. Щ. Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: «Эльбрус», 2001.
- Апажев, М. Л. Современный кабардино-черкесский язык. Лексикология, лексикография. Нальчик: «Эльбрус», 2000.
- Яковлев, Н.; Ашхамаф, Д. Грамматика адыгейского литературного языка. Москва - Ленинград: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1941.
- Рогава, Г. В.; Керашева, З. И. Грамматика адыгейского языка. Краснодар - Майкоп: Краснодарское книжное издательство, 1966.
- Kumakhov, Mukhadin & Vamling, Karina. Circassian Clause Structure (Caucasus Studies 1). Malmö: Malmö University, 2009. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1
- Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина. Дополнительные конструкции в кабардинском языке. Lund: Department of Linguistics, Lund University, 1998.
- Кумахов, Мухадин; Вамлинг, Карина. Эргативность в черкесских языках / Circassian Clause Structure. Malmö: Malmö University, 2006. ISBN 91-631-9191-1
| Adyghe | Сэ мыӏэрысэм иӏэшӏугъакӏэ сыкъегъатхъэ. | ... apple-OBL its-tastiness-state ... | "I enjoy the apple's tastiness." |- | Kabardian | Сэ мыӏэрысэм и ӏэфӏыгъакӏэм сыкъегъатхъэ. | ... apple-OBL its-tastiness-state ... | "I enjoy the apple's tastiness." |}
References
[edit]- ↑ Рогава & Керашева (1966), pp. 112–115.
- ↑ Matasović (2010), pp. 25–27.
- ↑ Arkadiev et al. (2009), pp. 45–48.
- ↑ Урыс (2001), pp. 89–90.
- ↑ Matasović (2010), pp. 28–30.
- ↑ Рогава & Керашева (1966), pp. 120–122.
- ↑ Урыс (2001), pp. 95–98.
- ↑ Arkadiev et al. (2009), pp. 60–63.
- ↑ Рогава & Керашева (1966), pp. 125–127.
- ↑ Урыс (2001), pp. 100–102.
Bibliography
[edit]- Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G.
- Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
- Ranko Matasović, A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian): .
- Caucasus Studies 1 CIRCASSIAN Clause Structure Mukhadin Kumakhov & Karina Vamling
- Кумахов, М. А. Морфология адыгских языков. Синхронно-диахронная характеристика. I. Введение, структура слова, словообразование частей речи. Нальчик: Кабардино-Балкарское книжное издательство, 1964.
- Аркадьев, П. М.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. (ред.). Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка. Москва: Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, 2009. ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
- Яковлев, Н. Ф. Краткая грамматика кабардино-черкесского языка. Выпуск I. Синтаксис и морфология. Ворошиловск: Орджоникидзевское краевое издательство, 1938.
- Яковлев, Н. Ф. Грамматика литературного кабардино-черкесского языка. Москва - Ленинград: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1948.
- Абдоков, А. И. Фонетические и лексические параллели абхазско-адыгских языков. Нальчик, 1973.
- Шагиров, А. К. Этимологический словарь адыгских (черкесских) языков. А-Н. Москва: Издательство «Наука», 1977.
- Урыс, Хь. Щ. Адыгэ грамматикэ. Фонетикэ, морфонемикэ, морфологие. Налшык: «Эльбрус», 2001.
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