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Osemwede

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Osemwede
33rd Oba of the Kingdom of Benin
Tall cast-brass royal portrait on a round base. The figure has a large stylized face with wide eyes, wears a high ornate crown with two upright projections, and is enclosed by a long, densely textured cylindrical collar or garment. Small animal figures ring the base.
Cast-brass portrait of Oba ('king') Osemwede, made in a Benin court workshop c. 1810 at Rietberg Museum
Oba of the Kingdom of Benin
Reign1816–1847 or 1848;
possibly until 1850 or 1851
Coronationc. 1816
PredecessorOgbebo
(disputed claimant)
SuccessorAdolo
BornEredia-uwa
Died1847 or 1848;
possibly 1850 or 1851
Known issue
  • Princess Aghayubini
  • Adolo
Regnal name
Osemwede ('My time has come')
FatherObanosa
MotherOmozogie

Osemwede (also rendered Osemwende; born Eredia-uwa; died 1847 or 1848, or possibly 1850 or 1851) was the thirty-third Oba ('king') of the Kingdom of Benin, reigning from 1816 until his death. A son of Oba Obanosa, he became Oba after a succession dispute and civil war with his brother Ogbebo. During the conflict, he obtained support in Ishan before returning to the Benin capital to be installed as Oba. His reign included efforts to restore royal authority after the war and military campaigns intended to renew Benin influence in Akure, Ekiti, and adjoining territories. It also included relations with Esan chiefdoms, Itsekiri polities, and Lagos, while regional commerce changed with the decline of the transatlantic slave trade and the growing importance of palm produce. He installed his mother, Omozogie, as Iyoba ('queen mother') and instituted several titles. Later Benin tradition associates his reign with military campaigns and continued internal political instability. A further disputed succession followed his death, after which his son Adolo became Oba.

Background and succession crisis

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Eredia-uwa was born to Oba ('king') Obanosa and Omozogie, later the Iyoba ('queen mother').[1][2] Later historical accounts differ over the timing of Obanosa's death and the conflict that followed. Historian J.O. Ahazuem links Obanosa's accession in 1804 to a civil war in which more than 1,000 deaths were reportedly recorded, whereas historian Osarhieme Osadolor dates Obanosa's assassination to 1815.[3][4] Osadolor argues that the struggle between Eredia-uwa and Ogbebo should not be understood as the sole cause of the civil war, since earlier political competition and instability had already weakened the kingdom.[5] Obanosa left no clear decision identifying which son was to succeed him, producing disagreement over seniority among princes born to his many wives.[6] The elders first selected Ogbebo, who was installed as Oba, but Eredia-uwa contested the decision and assembled supporters.[1] Eredia-uwa escaped to Ewokhimi or Evbokhinmwi in Ishan, where local rulers and supporters protected him.[3][7]

An oral tradition states that Ogbebo sought Eredia-uwa's death by sending coral beads as gifts to Ishan chiefs and ordering that Eredia-uwa's severed head be returned to Benin.[7] In the same account, Eredia-uwa's cousin Ogie intercepted the messengers, distributed the coral beads among Ishan chiefs, and assisted Eredia-uwa in obtaining their support.[3][7] Eredia-uwa's claim also received Esan military support, including troops sent by the Onojie ('king') of Irrua.[8] The conflict caused casualties and material damage in Benin.[9][7] Ogbebo was defeated after fighting between the rival forces, and then reportedly burned portions of the palace and took his own life.[10][11] European accounts by Lieutenant John King in the early 1820s reported that parts of the palace had been burned and that civil war had affected the city.[12][13] In 1816, messengers went to Ishan to return Eredia-uwa to Benin, where he was crowned Oba under the regnal name Osemwede, meaning "my time has come".[14][15] Anthropologist Robert Bradbury tentatively equated the name "Oddi" or "Odalla", appearing in a nineteenth-century European account, with Osemwede, but observed that it could not be securely connected to Eredia-uwa and was not confirmed by other contemporary evidence.[16]

Accession and restoration of authority

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Osemwede came to power when Benin's military command system and political institutions had been affected by prolonged instability and civil war. Osadolor interprets changes in the military hierarchy after the conflict as measures intended to strengthen unified command and advance post-war reconciliation and reconstruction. In Benin political tradition, the Oba was expected to seek the advice and approval of the Uzama ('kingmakers'), Eghaevbo n'Ore ('town chiefs'), and Eghaevbo n'Ogbe ('palace chiefs') before undertaking major laws, wars, or administrative measures.[17] Within several years of the civil war, Osemwede had restored sufficient parts of the palace complex to receive European visitors.[18] Visitors in the early nineteenth century described a palace that retained ceremonial and architectural features despite the destruction caused by the succession conflict.[19][20] Some tributary states delayed customary annual payments after Osemwede's accession, while others had not yet accepted his authority.[21] Historian Toyin Falola et al (1991) characterise his wars as attempts to revive Benin's imperial authority, but concluded that continuing internal instability limited the durability of those gains.[15]

Reign

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Military campaigns

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Akure campaign

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The Akure–Benin War is dated to around 1818, although a colonial intelligence estimate cited by Osadolor placed it provisionally as early as 1815.[14][22] Benin sought to restore its authority in Akure and enforce tribute obligations in eastern Yorubaland.[22] The expedition followed the killing of Osague, a senior official of the Iwebo palace society whom Osemwede had sent to Akure to announce his accession.[14][22][a] Osemwede sent an army commanded by Ezomo Erebo,[b] with Ologboshere and Imaran as commanders and Imadiyi and Oyodo serving as front commanders.[14][22] Benin forces captured Akure after Omonoyan fired a cannon at the Deji's palace from Oke-Elegbin.[14][27] Arakale, the Deji of Akure, fled but was later surrendered to Ezomo Erebo, who ordered his execution and sent his head to Osemwede in the Benin capital.[14][20]

The expedition was supported by contingents from Ikere and Irrua.[28] Ezomo Erebo and Ologboshere died during the return journey, and Osemwede mourned their deaths more than he celebrated the victory.[14] In recognition of Uromi's contribution, Osemwede granted its Enogie a special right to inherit the property of childless people in Uromi and its surrounding district.[14][29] Omozogie, Osemwede's mother, was credited with assisting the conquest of Akure.[2][30]

Ekiti operations and administration of Akure

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Following the capture of Akure, Osemwede's commanders extended Benin operations into the Ekiti country and used Otun as a base for campaigns that brought several towns and chiefdoms under Benin authority and tributary obligations.[31][28] When Ekiti communities later renewed their resistance, Osemwede sent another force under Omemu or Omuemu, which defeated Ekiti leaders at Igbara Oke and restored their allegiance and tribute obligations.[31][32] These obligations were reported to have continued until the British occupation of Benin in 1897.[31][28]

Osemwede later installed Adesoro, whom Egharevba identifies as the rightful heir to the Akure stool, as Deji of Akure.[31] Adesoro adopted the title Osupa and was assigned to protect Benin interests in the Ekiti region.[31][33] Orhuon, also known as Orhuonkedo, had previously established himself as ruler of Akure but reportedly died by suicide upon learning that Osupa was approaching with Osemwede's messengers.[31]

Relations with Esan chiefdoms

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During Osemwede's reign, Esan chiefdoms formed part of Benin's northern political and military sphere. Osadolor describes each Onojie as internally sovereign within an Esan community while owing tribute and services to the Oba of Benin under arrangements characterised as protective agreements or peace treaties. Benin princes involved in dynastic disputes frequently found refuge in Esan territories, and Esan contingents had long joined Benin campaigns of expansion and reconquest. The Onojie of Irrua and a force of Esan warriors supported Eredia-uwa in the succession conflict that resulted in his installation as Osemwede.[34] Irrua also supplied troops for the Akure campaign. Osadolor additionally records that Amilele, the ninth Onojie of Irrua, participated in a nineteenth-century expedition to Lagos.[29] Osemwede's administration intervened in Irrua following allegations that Ogbeide, the Onojie of Irrua, had ordered the killing of a pregnant woman in an effort to discover how food reached a child in the womb.[35] The elders of Irrua reported the case to the Benin capital, and Osemwede sent Iko and Edo of Idunmwuebo to summon Ogbeide.[31] Ogbeide took poison before appearing before the Oba. His eldest son, Isidahome I, was then taken to the Benin capital and installed as Onojie after stating that he had not participated in the act.[36]

Relations with Itsekiri polities

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Osemwede's rule overlapped with that of Olu ('king') Akengbuwa of the Itsekiri kingdom of Warri, who came to power around 1809 and was described by historian Alan Ryder and later historians as autocratic and violent.[37][38] Akengbuwa became involved in a dispute with Uwankun, the Uwangue or Umangue of Warri, a prominent Itsekiri chief associated with New Town and the founding of Jakpa on a creek west of the Benin River.[39][c] Uwangue fled Ode-Itsekiri, the Warri capital, and sought protection from Osemwede.[31][40] Osemwede supported Uwangue's position at Jakpa, which developed as a site of European commerce. Historians Julius O. Sagay and Derek Wilson state that Osemwede helped install the Uwangue at Jakpa on the Benin River.[40] Jakpa's commercial development diverted trade from rivals who continued to support Akengbuwa.[41]

Egharevba states that Osemwede instructed Akengbuwa to stop harassing the Uwangue but received an insulting reply. According to the Benin version, Osemwede then cursed Akengbuwa and his family, after which Akengbuwa and a number of potential successors allegedly died in quick succession.[31][41] Historian Ahazuem argues that Osemwede lacked naval resources for a river assault against the Olu, making the curse the principal response assigned to him in Benin tradition.[3] Uwangue's descendants, Diare and Nana, were later invested by Benin in respect of their holdings on the Benin River.[41] After Akengbuwa died in June 1848, the Itsekiri monarchy collapsed, creating conditions in which the Uwangue family became one of the river region's most influential groups.[40][42]

Lagos and tributary relations

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In 1840, Osemwede sent Okunbo the Osodin,[d] alongside Ihennua and Arhunmwude, to Lagos to request the usual annual tribute from the Eleko ('ruler'). The envoys found Lagos divided by war between Akitoye and Kosoko, then returned to the Benin capital to report this development.[36] Ryder mentions that whether the mission achieved its immediate purpose remains uncertain.[44] The embassy nonetheless reflected continued Benin claims to suzerainty over Lagos during Osemwede's lifetime.[45] Ryder writes that Akitoye possessed emblems of authority from Osemwede and that Kosoko later acknowledged the importance of Benin sanction to claims of lawful rule in Lagos.[44] Benin influence in Lagos was increasingly limited, however, by local political conflict and the expanding involvement of British consular officers.[46]

Trade and regional economy

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Renewed control over Akure and Ekiti had economic as well as political significance because northeastern Yoruba territory served as a nineteenth-century hinterland for Benin merchants. Goods from overseas, including firearms, gunpowder, salt and cloth, entered Benin through river ports before moving inland along established routes. Benin traders exchanged these goods for enslaved people, livestock, stone beads from Ilorin, leather and other commodities.[47] The principal association trading toward Akure was Ekhengbo, a name interpreted as "traders of the forest". Ekhengbo controlled the route between Benin and Akure, while similar associations operated toward eastern and northeastern trading centres. These associations were directed by titleholders and other leading Benin men, and the Oba belonged to each of them.[47]

Benin policy restricted inland activity by foreign traders and regulated waterside transactions with European and Itsekiri merchants.[47][3] The government of the Oba imposed dues on visiting ships, maintained monopolies over particular exports and reserved first access to commerce for the Oba and senior chiefs. These measures were intended to preserve the economic and political position of the ruling elite while limiting the circulation of firearms and gunpowder.[47] The ending of the transatlantic slave trade changed economic conditions in the Benin River during Osemwede's reign.[48] Ryder argues that Benin's economy was less dependent on the slave trade than many nineteenth-century British observers assumed. He identifies Itsekiri control of river approaches and difficulty finding export commodities in quantities sufficient for large-scale trade as barriers to renewed Edo commerce.[49]

Although slave trading in the Benin River generally declined, Portuguese slave ships continued to appear there in the 1820s and 1830s. Fawckner encountered Portuguese slave vessels in 1825, while a British naval ship seized the Portuguese vessel Veloz in the river around 1837.[50] During a visit by English travellers in 1838, Osemwede criticised British efforts to disrupt slave trading.[51] Efforts to increase trade in Benin cloth and ivory were constrained by limited overseas demand and growing competition from Ijebu merchants.[52] Civil wars in the Oyo and Fulani conquests in Nupe further disrupted some established Benin supply networks.[53] Palm products gradually acquired greater importance, though large-scale palm-oil commerce developed relatively late in the Benin River.[54] By the end of the 1840s, European firms operated trading factories around Bobi and Jakpa creeks, where palm-oil trade was reshaping the regional economy.[55] During the nineteenth century, Ughoton, once Benin's principal port, lost much of its commercial role as coastal Itsekiri settlements became more important in river trade.[3] Itsekiri expansion within the river system consequently restricted Benin's ability to benefit directly from the developing palm-oil economy.[56]

Court, family and titles

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Important figures early in Osemwede's reign included Iyase Ohenmwen,[b] Ihaza Oke, Eson of Ekiokpagha, and Uwangue Ogie.[14] Egharevba described Iyase Ohenmwen, whom he identified as his own great-grandfather, as possessing so many enslaved people and cattle that he did not know their number and could be deceived by enslaved people presented to him for sale. Ihaza Oke was described as wealthy and powerful, as well as the maternal great-grandfather of the later Oba Ovonramwen. Osemwede made the Uwangue title hereditary.[14]

Around 1817 or 1818, Osemwede installed his mother Omozogie as Iyoba ('queen mother').[2][30] This followed a Benin practice whereby an Oba formally conferred the title on his mother some years after his accession and established her at the queen mother's court in Lower Uselu.[2] Omozogie devoted her personal resources to supporting Osemwede's military programme and was credited with assistance in the Akure campaign.[57] Lieutenant John King visited Omozogie's court in 1820 and described her as receiving visitors in a large palace, dressed in fine silk and coral jewellery.[30][58] Osemwede instituted the titles Obarisiagbon, Obaduagbon, Obasogie, Aiyobagbon, Obanyagbon, Obazuwa, and Osasemwoyen.[59] Egharevba states that his daughter Aghayubini possessed wealth and political influence and later assisted her brother Adolo in obtaining the throne.[60]

Contemporary accounts and historical interpretation

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King travelled to Benin between 1815 and 1821, Fawckner arrived in 1825, and Robert Moffat and surveyor William Smith visited in 1838.[36] During his 1825 visit, Fawckner described Osemwede as a "fine stout handsome man".[16] Early visitors described a palace affected by civil war but still marked by extensive architecture and ceremonial life.[19][20] In Egharevba's retrospective history, Osemwede is characterised as a kind-hearted and capable ruler whose conquests extended Benin territory.[36] Falola et al similarly describe the reign as relatively successful militarily, but mention that subsequent political instability weakened the durability of Benin's wider imperial authority.[15] Bradbury identifies renewed Benin influence in Ekiti as among the principal achievements associated with Osemwede's reign.[47] Ryder warns that European nineteenth-century depictions of Benin were frequently influenced by racial assumptions and disproportionate attention to ceremonial human sacrifice. Ryder considered highly implausible a statement made to members of the 1841 Niger expedition that Osemwede sacrificed three people every day.[61]

Death and succession

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Egharevba assigns Osemwede's death to the thirty-second year of his rule, which corresponds to 1847 in Egharevba's chronology.[36] Falola et al likewise give his reign as 1816–1847 and date Adolo's accession to 1848.[15] Sagay and Wilson instead state that Osemwede died in 1848.[38] Ryder places his death later, in 1850 or 1851, and dates Adolo's coronation to March 1851.[62] Another dynastic dispute preceded Adolo's succession.[15][38] Adolo's opponent Ogbewekon escaped to Igueben in Ishan and later encouraged revolts that continued to affect the region until his death in 1880.[3][63] This succession crisis occurred as Benin faced increasing pressure from Nupe raids, the expansion of Ibadan influence and declining Benin authority in parts of the Niger-Igbo region.[38]

Explanatory footnotes

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  1. 1 2 The Oba's household was organised into three distinct associations, each responsible for particular aspects of palace life.[23] The first, Iwebo, originally managed clothing and regalia for the Oba.[24] Over time, its duties expanded to include oversight of financial and trading matters, under the authority of the Uwangue, a title linked to Ewedo. The second group, Iweguae, consisted of attendants and domestic servants, led by the Esere. The third, Ibiwe, was tasked with serving the Oba's wives and children, and its senior chief, Osodin, is traditionally traced back to Ewedo's time.[25]
  2. 1 2 The Iyase was usually the commander-in-chief of the Benin warriors, followed by the Ezomo and the Ologbosere and Imaran.[26]
  3. ↑ Jakpa is in today's Warri North of Delta State, Nigeria
  4. ↑ The Osodin titleholder is a member of the Ibiwe palace society.[43][a]

References

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Citations

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  1. 1 2 Blackmun 1994, p. 93.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Egharevba 1968, p. 75.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ahazuem 2005, p. 135.
  4. ↑ Osadolor 2001, p. 170.
  5. ↑ Osadolor 2001, pp. 170–171.
  6. ↑ Blackmun 1994, pp. 93, 95.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Roese & Bondarenko 2003, p. 252.
  8. ↑ Osadolor 2001, pp. 171, 195.
  9. ↑ Blackmun 1991, p. 65.
  10. ↑ Egharevba 1968, p. 43.
  11. ↑ Osadolor 2001, p. 171.
  12. ↑ Bradbury 1973, pp. 25–26.
  13. ↑ Roese & Bondarenko 2003, p. 252–253.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Egharevba 1968, p. 44.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Falola et al. 1991, p. 97.
  16. 1 2 Bradbury 1973, p. 25.
  17. ↑ Osadolor 2001, p. 183.
  18. ↑ Blackmun 1994, p. 94.
  19. 1 2 Blackmun 1994, pp. 94–95.
  20. 1 2 3 Roese & Bondarenko 2003, p. 253.
  21. ↑ Blackmun 1994, p. 95.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Osadolor 2001, p. 178.
  23. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 5.
  24. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 5–6.
  25. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 6.
  26. ↑ Egharevba 1968, p. 80.
  27. ↑ Roese & Smith 2000, p. 75.
  28. 1 2 3 Osadolor 2001, p. 179.
  29. 1 2 Osadolor 2001, p. 196.
  30. 1 2 3 Blackmun 1991, p. 64.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Egharevba 1968, p. 45.
  32. ↑ Osadolor 2001, pp. 179, 197.
  33. ↑ Osadolor 2001, p. 197.
  34. ↑ Osadolor 2001, p. 195.
  35. ↑ Egharevba 1968, pp. 45–46.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 Egharevba 1968, p. 46.
  37. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 230.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Sagay & Wilson 1980, p. 111.
  39. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 230–231.
  40. 1 2 3 Sagay & Wilson 1980, p. 112.
  41. 1 2 3 Ryder 1969, p. 231.
  42. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 243–244.
  43. ↑ Egharevba 1968, p. 77.
  44. 1 2 Ryder 1969, p. 241.
  45. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 241–242.
  46. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 241–243.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 Bradbury 1973, p. 49.
  48. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 231–233.
  49. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 233.
  50. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 232.
  51. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 232–233.
  52. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 234–235.
  53. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 235.
  54. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 235, 239.
  55. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 239.
  56. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 245–246.
  57. ↑ Blackmun 1994, p. 109.
  58. ↑ Blackmun 1994, pp. 109–110.
  59. ↑ Egharevba 1968, p. 78.
  60. ↑ Egharevba 1968, p. 76.
  61. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 247.
  62. ↑ Ryder 1969, pp. 244–245.
  63. ↑ Ryder 1969, p. 245.

Works cited

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