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Draft:Isotope analysis of Crusaders

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Isotope analysis of Crusaders is located in Israel
Caesarea
Caesarea
Parvum Gerinum
Parvum Gerinum
A map of sites where crusader remains have been isotopically studied

Isotope analysis in archaeology has numerous applications, including studies of population movement and migration.[1]. The mobility of Europeans during the Crusades is one area in which these studies are particularly useful, given the paucity of other evidence. Typically, researchers have treated architectural changes as reflecting growing European influence and, thus, population migration[2]. There are distinct differences between Crusader and Middle Eastern architecture, in both cities and rural settlements, indicating a wide-scale migration to the region[3]. Additionally, there were changes in language use, as reflected in textual evidence[4]. Migration patterns can be understood by studying surnames. In Medieval Europe, surnames were not hereditary. Instead, many stemmed from physical features, occupation, or, importantly, geographic origin. In the Crusader Middle East, these geographic-based surnames can be useful clues to the origins of certain individuals[5].

However, these methods are effective only when primary documentary or archaeological sources survive. They do not look directly at the people themselves, but only at the traces they leave behind, which may not reflect reality. Fortunately, isotope analysis does not require these sources and can study people directly by analysing human remains.

Background

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During the Crusades, hundreds of thousands of Europeans travelled to the Eastern Mediterranean, also known as the Levant, for military, religious, or economic reasons. Many of these migrant Europeans settled in the Levant, especially during the existence of the Frankish Crusader States[6][7].To understand the region's social dynamics, it is essential to assess the extent of European presence and the origins of Europeans in the region. Previous methods of understanding this movement have helped, but have fallen short in several respects. Studies of architecture and material culture can demonstrate the presence or absence of Frankish influence, whether through Frankish buildings, artefacts, or fortifications, or through Frankish influence on local versions of these. This influence is illustrated by the common example of a crusader-era residential tower in castles (a donjon), an innovation originating in Europe[8].

However, a donjon, for example, cannot determine if there was one European in the settlement, one hundred, or one thousand. Similarly, the presence of a church can distinguish a site from a local Muslim one, but not from a local Christian one. Additionally, the then-crusader states frequently changed rulers over the centuries, and many buildings, from churches to castles, have been drastically altered or even destroyed, making material culture difficult to obtain in some areas. Documentary sources are even more subject to decay and destruction, though they can provide insights into the population of the time. A study of the recorded names in the crusader states found that a majority of second names referred to their holders’ place of origin, and over 60% of those were European rather than local. However, this is not fully representative of the Levant's ethnic composition as these recorded names constitute only a subset of the population. Scholars have argued that this may be heavily skewed by biases in the types of individuals whose names are recorded in legal proceedings [5].

While both these approaches have merits, they rely on the survival of certain types of information-bearing items. Combining the two provides a clearer picture of migration to the Levant during this period, and combining them with isotopic data yields an even clearer picture. Isotopes are taken up into bones and teeth from the diet and the natural environment. Different areas of the world have different ratios of these isotopes. Strontium and oxygen are commonly used in archaeological migration studies. The measured isotope ratio for strontium is ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, which relates to the geology of the area and is taken up by crops in the soil, and then reaches humans either by ingesting those crops or animals that ate those crops[9]. The measured isotope for Oxygen is ¹⁸O, which derives from rainfall and reaches humans through water consumed by drinking or through foods cooked in water (stews, boiled meat, etc.)[10]. It is measured as a δ (difference) from a set standard.

Case Studies

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Two main sites have undergone isotope analysis: Caesarea (Qaisariya) and Parvum Gerinum (Tel Jezreel). Both cities were part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These sites were analysed in tandem, as they were quite different, to draw wider conclusions[11].

Caesarea

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The fortified city of Caesarea contains several crusader-era cemeteries[12]. Interestingly, all of the excavated graves were laid east-west with the head facing west and the arms crossed. Despite these similarities in burial arrangement, the individuals found near the cathedral had far superior graves with capstones, plaster, and stone ‘pillows’. Those graves outside the city had almost none of these luxuries. These two groups were interpreted as being high-status and low-status, respectively. The twenty individuals analysed isotopically were split evenly between high-status cemeteries near the cathedral and low-status cemeteries outside the city walls. The teeth of these individuals were sectioned, and the enamel was separated from the dentine. The enamel was cleaned and dissolved in solution before being subjected to Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry[13]. Oxygen and Strontium ratios were measured, with Oxygen being converted into VSMOW values (see uncertainty section).

Parvum Gerinum

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Parvum Gerinum was a much smaller village and contained only one notable crusader-era cemetery. Unlike Caesarea, all the graves investigated were low-status, though they did have stone ‘pillows’ like the high-status graves at Caesarea. Only two individuals were analysed. The same isotopic methods were followed. Because few manuscripts describe crusaders settling in small villages, this site was specifically chosen due to its small size.

Local Range

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Isotopic data must be compared with the local ranges of isotope ratios. Some studies can fall short here, as local ratios can be very similar to those from other regions (e.g. comparing Kent to Normandy). However, the Levant is geologically and climatically very different from most of Europe, which makes the strontium and oxygen ratios distinct from those in  Europe. Oxygen maps were created from precipitation data and used to interpret the data[14][15]. The overall range of the local area is roughly –10.2 ‰ to –4.2 ‰ δ¹⁸O. While certain parts of southern Spain resemble the Levant, most of Europe is distinct. Spaniards would also not typically be expected in the Crusader States, especially those from Southern Spain, which was under Muslim rule, and many Christians would have been preoccupied with the Iberian Crusades rather than the Middle Eastern ones [16]

Strontium is also quite different in the Levant compared to Europe. The range of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr was considered to be 0.7078-0.7090, based on studies of local sediments and rocks[17][18]. For both isotopes, realistic and conservative alternative ranges were considered by the studies.

The plot of the results from Mitchell and Millard's work.

Results

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Isotope results are often best presented in plots, as shown here. The solid-line box is the expected isotopic range at the site. The dotted-line box represents a much more conservative range, meaning that individuals whose isotopes fall within that box are possibly local, though not very likely. Both ranges are utilised to ensure the conclusions are neither too broad nor too specific.

These results indicate that the vast majority (19) of individuals from the sites may have been non-local. Roughly half (13) of the individuals were highly likely to be non-local, as indicated by their being outside the dotted-line box. Of the 22 individuals analysed, this represents a vast proportion. Since the values of the non-local individuals would fit in Europe, isotope data have therefore implied significant European migration to the Levant with the Crusades. However, this study also indicates that these migrants to the Levant either did not have children, were not buried with their children, or their children moved away and were not buried in the same cemeteries. Even the children of Europeans would have shown local isotope ratios if they had grown up in the Levant, and those are very infrequent here.

Caesarea seems to have had a vast migrant majority, while Parvum Gerinum appears to have been composed solely of locals. The former was a large city, and the latter a small village, which could explain this discrepancy. Within Caesarea, the isotope results were diverse, and there was no correlation between the cemetery where an individual was buried and their isotopic origin. Previous scholars argued that the low-status graves outside the city walls were used by local Christians, such as Melkites[19]. However, this study seems to contradict this idea.

Limitations

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Uncertainty

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All isotopic studies naturally contain some error. The machines that measure stable isotope ratios naturally introduce uncertainty in the form of analytical error, which is usually represented as a normal distribution with a mean and standard deviation. Oxygen is even more complex. The δ¹⁸O measured from human bones or teeth comes from carbonate or phosphate compounds present in those bones or teeth. However, this is not directly applicable to migration studies, as these measured δ¹⁸O values differ slightly from those in drinking water, which are linked to regional rainfall and used to understand individuals' origins [20]. The values are converted using equations that carry their own uncertainties.

Additionally, several equations can be used, and some have changed over time. The Daux et al.[21] equation was used in this study; alternatives include those of Levinson et al.[22] and Chenery et al.[23] In Oxygen, there are three sources of potential error: analytical error, equation error, and equation choice. The first two together are represented by the error bars in the plot for this study. However, the measured δ¹⁸O can also be non-representative of an individual's origin because processes such as boiling and brewing can alter the δ¹⁸O of rainfall before humans ingest it. The error margins for strontium are so small that they are smaller than the plot dots.

All of these sources of error mean that single points on charts cannot be used to definitively determine an individual's place of origin, just by using isotopes. The conclusions scientists make must account for this uncertainty and acknowledge that other theories are possible. This study does so by using different ranges and acknowledging poor statistical sampling.

Interpreting the Results

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While the results themselves seem fairly clear, i.e. that a majority of these samples were from Europe, the implications are less clear. This study used available samples; however, sampling is often imperfect, which can affect stable isotope results[24]. Some scholars have expressed caution in interpreting isotopic data and have noted media (e.g. newspapers) misrepresentation of data[25]. An example of this is seen in the Blick Mead Dog, where the media misinterpreted a map, leading to articles about its supposed journey from York[26], which is not supported by the paper on the dog[27]. However, other scholars examine large-scale isotope datasets published across multiple papers and argue that such data are highly useful for migration studies in archaeology, particularly in the Anglo-Saxon period[1]. This study on the Crusades that examines Caesarea and Parvum Gerinum concludes that research on crusader migration is scarce and requires greater scope and scale. This paper cannot and does not conclusively establish that there was mass migration across all areas of the Levant, or that up to 19/20 of individuals in the Frankish states were European. However, it suggests trends and notes that these isotopic conclusions are only useful when their archaeological contexts are considered as well.

Conclusions from the Case Studies

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The cemeteries at Caesarea and Parvum Gerinum both show a high proportion of non-locals, whose values suggest possible European migration, suggesting this was the trend at the time. However, the scope of their isotope-driven conclusions is limited and requires further studies. When compared with the amount of European architecture found in the Crusader-Age Levant and with the surname studies, this evidence seems to fit. Yet, compared to contemporary records, as understood by scholars[28], this study shows a higher amount of migration. The true makeup of the Crusader Levant can only be understood by further studies, both isotopic and otherwise. The limitations of isotope studies are apparent, but they do not preclude scientists from gaining valuable information from them as long as they are conscious of these potential errors and their effects on the interpretation of the site.

References

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Citations

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  1. 1 2 Depaermentier, Margaux L. C. (2023). "Isotope data in Migration Period archaeology: critical review and future directions". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 15 (4). doi:10.1007/s12520-023-01739-y. ISSN 1866-9557.
  2. ↑ Boas, Adrian J. (2023-11-10). Crusader Archaeology: The Material Culture of the Latin East (3 ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003279648. ISBN 978-1-003-27964-8.
  3. ↑ Ellenblum, Ronnie (2002). Frankish rural settlement in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52187-1.
  4. ↑ Aslanov, Cyril (2002-12-31). "Languages in Contact in the Latin East: Acre and Cyprus". Crusades. 1 (1): 155–181. doi:10.1080/28327861.2002.12220537. ISSN 1476-5276.
  5. 1 2 Shagrir, I. (2007). The Medieval Evolution of By-Naming: Notions from the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (2007). In Laudem Hierosolymitani: Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar, Edited by Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley-Smith (Ashgate, Aldershot), Pp. 49-59.
  6. ↑ Setton, K. M. (1969). A history of the Crusades ([2nd ed.]). University of Wisconsin Press.
  7. ↑ Riley-Smith, J. (2002). The Oxford history of the Crusades. Academic.
  8. ↑ Peleg, S.-A. (2023). Crossing Borders with Crusader Heritage. Yearbook of Transnational History:(2023), 31.
  9. ↑ McNutt, Robert H. (2000), "Strontium Isotopes", in Cook, Peter G.; Herczeg, Andrew L. (eds.), Environmental Tracers in Subsurface Hydrology, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 233–260, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4557-6_8, ISBN 978-1-4613-7057-4, retrieved 2026-02-25
  10. ↑ Yang, Qingchun; Mu, Haokun; Guo, Junchun; Bao, Xinhua; Martín, Jordi Delgado (June 2019). "Temperature and rainfall amount effects on hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope in precipitation". Quaternary International. 519: 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.01.027.
  11. ↑ Mitchell, Piers D.; Millard, Andrew R. (2013-12-31). "Approaches to the Study of Migration during the Crusades". Crusades. 12 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/28327861.2013.12220269. ISSN 1476-5276.
  12. ↑ Mitchell, P. D. (2006). Trauma in the Crusader period city of Caesarea: A major port in the medieval eastern Mediterranean. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 16(6), 493–505.
  13. ↑ Mitchell, Piers D.; Millard, Andrew R. (2009). "Migration to the Medieval Middle East with the Crusades". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 140 (3): 518–525. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21100. ISSN 0002-9483.
  14. ↑ Bowen, G. J., & Wilkinson, B. (2002). Spatial distribution of δ18O in meteoric precipitation. Geology, 30(4), 315–318.
  15. ↑ Bowen, Gabriel J.; Revenaugh, Justin (2003). "Interpolating the isotopic composition of modern meteoric precipitation". Water Resources Research. 39 (10). doi:10.1029/2003WR002086. ISSN 0043-1397.
  16. ↑ O'Banion, Patrick J. (2008). "What has Iberia to do with Jerusalem? Crusade and the Spanish route to the Holy Land in the twelfth century". Journal of Medieval History. 34 (4): 383–395. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2008.09.003. ISSN 0304-4181.
  17. ↑ McArthur, J. M., & Howarth, R. J. (2005). Strontium isotope stratigraphy. Cambridge University Press.
  18. ↑ Perry, M. A., Coleman, D., & Delhopital, N. (2008). Mobility and exile at 2nd century AD khirbet edh-dharih: Strontium isotope analysis of human migration in western Jordan. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, 23(4), 528–549.
  19. ↑ Smith, P., & Zegerson, T. (1999). Morbidity and mortality of post-Byzantine populations from Caesarea. JOURNAL OF ROMAN ARCHAEOLOGY-SUPPLEMENTARY SERIES-, 35, 433–440.
  20. ↑ Chenery, Carolyn A.; Pashley, Vanessa; Lamb, Angela L.; Sloane, Hilary J.; Evans, Jane A. (2012-02-15). "The oxygen isotope relationship between the phosphate and structural carbonate fractions of human bioapatite". Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry. 26 (3): 309–319. doi:10.1002/rcm.5331. ISSN 0951-4198.
  21. ↑ Daux, Valérie; Lécuyer, Christophe; Héran, Marie-Anne; Amiot, Romain; Simon, Laurent; Fourel, François; Martineau, François; Lynnerup, Niels; Reychler, Hervé; Escarguel, Gilles (2008). "Oxygen isotope fractionation between human phosphate and water revisited". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (6): 1138–1147. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.06.006.
  22. ↑ Levinson, A.A.; Luz, Boaz; Kolodny, Yehoshua (1987). "Variations in oxygen isotopic compositions of human teeth and urinary stones". Applied Geochemistry. 2 (4): 367–371. doi:10.1016/0883-2927(87)90021-7.
  23. ↑ Chenery, Carolyn; Müldner, Gundula; Evans, Jane; Eckardt, Hella; Lewis, Mary (2010). "Strontium and stable isotope evidence for diet and mobility in Roman Gloucester, UK". Journal of Archaeological Science. 37 (1): 150–163. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.09.025.
  24. ↑ Contina, Andrea; Magozzi, Sarah; Vander Zanden, Hannah B.; Bowen, Gabriel J.; Wunder, Michael B. (2022). "Optimizing stable isotope sampling design in terrestrial movement ecology research". Methods in Ecology and Evolution. 13 (6): 1237–1249. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.13840. ISSN 2041-210X.
  25. ↑ Madgwick, Richard; Lamb, Angela; Sloane, Hilary; Nederbragt, Alexandra; Albarella, Umberto; Parker Pearson, Mike; Evans, Jane (2021-07-03). "A veritable confusion: use and abuse of isotope analysis in archaeology". Archaeological Journal. 178 (2): 361–385. doi:10.1080/00665983.2021.1911099. ISSN 0066-5983.
  26. ↑ Brown, Mark (2016). "Dog's tooth leads to discovery of earliest known journey in UK history". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2026-02-25.
  27. ↑ Rogers, B.; Gron, K.J.; Montgomery, J.; Rowley-Conwy, P.; Nowell, G.; Peterkin, J.; Jacques, D. (2019). "Isotopic analysis of the Blick Mead dog: A proxy for the dietary reconstruction and mobility of Mesolithic British hunter-gatherers". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 24: 712–720. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.02.022.
  28. ↑ Prawer, J. (1980). Crusader Institutions. Clarendon Press.

Further Reading

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