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Community integration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Community integration, while diversely defined, is a term encompassing the full participation of all people in community life. It has specifically referred to the integration of people with disabilities into American society[1][2] from the local to the national level, and for decades was a defining agenda in countries such as Great Britain.[3] Throughout recent decades, community integration programs have been increasingly effective in improving healthcare access for people with disabilities. They have been valued for providing a "voice for the voiceless".[4]

In the United States, the Consortium of Citizens for Disabilities[5] advocates for a national public policy that "ensures the self-determination, independence, empowerment, integration, and inclusion of children and adults with disabilities in all parts of society". Some countries, such as Canada, cite inclusion as the primary consideration: the unifying, global agenda in "disability and community life".[6][7]

Theory

[edit]

From the lens of special education, theorists have defined types of integration as physical, functional, social, community, and organizational.[8] Within social networks in support of people with disabilities, community integration signifies opportunities for participation in schools, careers, homes, relationships, leisure, and a variety of interests and lifestyles.[9] Bengt Nirje and the late Wolf Wolfensberger are internationally regarded for their concepts of normalization and social role valorization,[10][11] with a particular emphasis on physical and social integration. Anders Gustavsson (c. 1990) specified that "physical integration" best describes the common use of the term "integration," while "social integration" applied to the struggle for equality and quality in life.[12]

The original intent of community integration was to promote the participation of people with disabilities in typical or public environments, in contrast to exclusionary practices such as the minority-group model.[13][14] As the field has shifted in favor of community support, theories related to community living have begun to require applicability beyond a minority-group model[15] with a new emphasis on self-determination.[16] Racino has described these theories to include ecological theory, community-support theories, systems theory, feminist theories, family theories, sociocultural theories, critical theories in education, psychosocial theories, the generic human-concept theory, and universal theories.[15]

Systems change

[edit]

Taylor, in his analysis of community systems in the US, proposed the principle of the non-restrictive environment as a counterpoint to the federal government's least-restrictive-environment principle.[17][18] As of 2014, the governing principle in the United States was that of the most integrated setting based upon the Supreme Court Olmstead Decision.[19]

Before the Olmstead decision, the Supreme Court addressed community integration multiple times in Halderman v. Pennhurst State School and Hospital, a class action case filed in Pennsylvania by attorney David Ferleger.[20] Although the Olmstead decision did not explicitly address the constitutional issues decided in the Pennhurst case and similar, limitations in Olmstead have been critiqued and it has been argued that there is a constitutional right to community services.[21]

Broader systemic change in support of community integration faces challenges in consideration of local public agencies, agreement on strategic approaches (e.g., enabling leadership, putting people first, values and vision, learning for quality), and the implications for national policy.[22] Disability-agency, state-level disability-system, community, and societal change are essential (but insufficient) elements of the process and outcomes of community integration.[23]

As community integration is strongly rooted in societal participation, it has wide application and presence across many community practice fields, including community psychology and sociology, inclusive education in local school systems, competitive businesses (with rehabilitation), rural independent living, urban sociology, local parks and recreation programs, community development, housing, and neighbourhoods.

Education

[edit]

Community integration in an educational setting is of historical and modern significance, described as "more comprehensive than academic mainstreaming".[24] In an educational context, community integration refers to opportunities "to learn practical social and community living skills in a wide variety of community settings".[25]: 3  Based in part on the Civil rights movement[26] as represented by Brown v. Board of Education, school integration focused on the right to free and appropriate education.[27][28]

Educational integration is often equated with inclusion and remains controversial (although legally supported) in the United States partly due to special-education systems.[29][30][31] School integration often applies to children with more significant support needs, such as those requiring assistive technology.[32] There is general acceptance and support at the post-secondary level in almost all populations, as many colleges have developed disability services departments.[33][34] Instead of educational integration, the goal is for continued school reform through inclusion (education) and for education with legally-mandated accommodations.

Housing

[edit]

In the field of accessibility and support services for people with disabilities in the United States, the once-popular group- and facility-based models have shifted to homes with support services,[35] emphasizing a change from "home-like" housing to community homes, neighbourhoods, and relationships.[36][37] Homeownership is an example of community integration that also empowers individuals.[38][39] Housing integration advocates for high-quality affordable housing which often includes analyses of social exclusion which may concentrate on US-protected classes.[40]

The context of housing integration in the United States has significance due to the country's history of racial and class-based residential segregation.[41][42] The academic study of this type of segregation continues to be relevant within ethnic, social, and economic frameworks, including studies of desegregation, gentrification, and hyper segregation.[43][44][45] In particular, redlining affects housing and neighborhood integration by gerrymandering voting districts to promote or devalue community development funds.[46] A discussion of residential segregation in the United States and Europe and a "critique of the ideal of integration" can be found in Inclusion and Democracy.[47]

In the United States, mixed-income and scattered-site housing were reported in a case study of a housing association supporting people with disabilities in Madison, Wisconsin (the Madison Mutual Housing Association and Cooperative).[48] In Canada, the Prairie Housing Cooperative (as reported by David Wetherow) creates housing opportunities for people with disabilities.[49] An early review on nonprofit housing in the United States and Canada indicated that mixed-income housing[50] was used primarily in "troubled neighbourhoods" with efforts to seek higher-income tenants to move into those neighbourhoods as opposed to raising the entire group's living standards.[51] In 2013, the emphasis was on inclusive and sustainable housing,[52] while other groups supported equitable and sustainable housing in the United States. The status of housing and disability in the United States was reported by the National Council on Disability,[53] and compared to Harvard University's report on the nation's housing.[54][55]

Recreation

[edit]

Being in the community has meant being part of local activities and events in towns, cities, and suburbs.[56] Recreational integration is one facet of inclusion and community access.[57] School-and-recreation integration was promoted in the US, Canada, and Australia.[58][59] On the local level, concerns have included acceptance and friendships, support services, site accessibility, group size, and "truly integrated" (in contrast to side-by-side) activities; in Great Britain, for example, community opportunities were sought for people to belong, contribute and make friends.[60] Recreational funding has also often been tied to facilities, and community integration involves staffing changes in environments such as the YMCA.[61]

Recreational inclusion may be a camp,[62] a neighborhood center,[63] a girls' softball league,[64] school sports or technology clubs,[65] a community choir,[66] or a public-speaking course[67] as integrated social participation.[68][69] Auto-related examples include an amusement-park car track; car shows, bike nights and car cruise-ins, and model-car racing.[70]

Employment

[edit]

Employment integration was advocated during the 1970s for women, people with disabilities, and racial groups, who were seen as discriminated against in employment (Racino for the Urban League of Onondaga County, Inc., 1978); for example, occupations and professions were constructed based upon gender: women's professions (nurses, teachers, secretaries) and men's professions (scientists, managers, administrators, police, firemen, and construction).[71] Progress has been made at the leadership level with the first African American president (Barack Obama), disability leadership in the United States Department of Education (Judith Heumann), and the rise of prominent women in the State Department (Madeleine Albright and Hillary Clinton).

For those with severe disabilities, employment-integration initiatives were often framed as supported employment, which allowed jobs at regular businesses and employment sites.[72][73][74][75][76] Similar initiatives in the mental health field were often called transitional employment, and other forms of integration included competitive placements in businesses and industry, targeted positions, and even affirmative businesses in the hearts of business districts. A major success was the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, amended in 2008 (following the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, amended in 1978), which protected men and women with disabilities in obtaining jobs, careers, and positions with necessary workplace accommodations.[77] A key service for employment integration is often considered to be personal assistance services,[78] or in other fields a job coach[79] before more "natural" models of supervision and support.[80]

In this context employment integration has been conceptualized, including social aspects of promotion, discriminatory hiring and termination practices, performance standards, job-sharing and modification, educational attainment, internships and volunteer experiences, workplace relationships, team-building, supervisory roles, workers' compensation, accommodations, and supports (Urban League of Onondaga County, 1978). Competitive employment integration in the US workplace is expected by law, and categorical services have tended to be developed segregated bases (e.g., sheltered facilities to supported employment). Employment integration is a worldwide issue, modified by approaches to multicultural groups (e.g. the growing Latino population in the US), the changing economy (e.g. from manufacturing to service), and increasing unemployment.

Policies

[edit]

Community integration has been most criticized for its inattention to gender, ethnic, cultural, racial, class, and economic factors[81][82] ("double discrimination", pp. 60–61). At the university level multiculturalism, including disability, was proposed as the solution to these complex issues.[83] Community integration, in practice, involves diverse approaches and models (age, team, agency, area, and gender integration or segregation) and has been integral to de-institutionalization and community development for over two decades.[84][85] Community integration is a policy, concept, and practice to address systemic stigma and discrimination related to disability.[13][86][87] It competes with other policy models (such as multiculturalism) and changes its practices over time.[88]

Cross-disability

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In the sub-field of brain injury, community integration included areas ranging from supported employment to daily living skills, family interventions (versus support) and memory training, school reintegration, and transition to post-secondary education.[89][90][91][92] Community integration was being diversely defined by researchers, including those in fields such as brain injury,[93][94] sensory impairments (e.g., hearing, visual),[95] developmental,[96] and physical disabilities.[97] News and professional-journal articles will often read, "integration into the community" (from institutions and facilities), integrated care (health services integration), or "community reintegration" (after hospital care)[98] worldwide.

In the field of mental health Paul Carling promoted community integration in the 1980s and 1990s in opposition to the predominant medical model,[99][100] while psychiatric rehabilitation is also linked to the medical, often allied health, professions. Carling's approach to community integration in mental health was congruent with intellectual disabilities, particularly in areas of community living (e.g., supportive living in intellectual disabilities, supported housing in mental health, and housing and support).[101] In 2008, Disability and Society, a popular disability policy journal discussed community reintegration for people with psychiatric disabilities and their relationship to centres for independent living.[102]

Comprehensive medical systems were proposed to support the family in community integration, including new roles for specialized personnel from neuropsychologists to physiatrists.[103] In the field of traumatic brain injury, community integration was framed by both the social and medical models of disability to transition people from hospitals and rehabilitation centres.[104][105] Today, the Brain Injury Association of America recommends the educational needs of children with traumatic brain injuries and the health care required.[106]

US federal initiative

[edit]

In 1985, the US government-funded a national community-integration project identifying best community practices for people with the "most severe disabilities".[107][108] Technical assistance was funded through the Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration (of the National Institute on Disability Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, US Department of Education) to all states.[109][110] The Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration (Syracuse University, headed by Steve Taylor) also subcontracted with the University of Illinois (David Braddock) and the University of Minnesota Institute on Community Integration (K. Charlie Lakin).[111] The federal departments subsequently offered contracts to evaluate the status of these new community services in the US[112] and others.

The principles of community integration through the national flagship centres (the Rehabilitation Research and Training Centre on Family and Community Living,[113] facilitated by Lakin and J.A. Racino of Syracuse University) were:

  • All people with disabilities will be able to live successfully in (and as part of) natural communities that provide them with the support they need.
  • All people with disabilities will be recognized for the positive contributions they make to their families and communities.
  • All people with disabilities will benefit from enduring relationships with other people (including family members and community members without disabilities).
  • All people with disabilities (and their family members) will be entitled to participate in decisions affecting the nature and quality of services they receive.
  • All people with disabilities will have access to services and supports that provide choice and support for full citizenship.
  • Services and supports for people with disabilities will be individualized and responsive to cultural and ethnic differences, economic resources, and life circumstances.
  • Public policy will provide the opportunity to enjoy productive, integrated lives.

The 1988 Leadership Institute on Community Integration, From Being in the Community to Being Part of the Community, led to the preparation of papers from workgroups representing the domains of community living, families, school, and employment.[114] From this conference,[2] four major themes in the field of community integration were noted:

  • Major progress had been made.
  • Direct attention towards achieving full integration and participation.
  • A gap in best practices and the practices in most communities.
  • Insufficient policy and economic support for community integration.

By the late 2000s, the Centers were renamed to Community Participation, one aspect of community integration, or Employment, or other priority areas, such as Health, with many of the above centres still federally funded through the NIDRR program (National Institute on Rehabilitation Research and Rehabilitation), US Department of Education and new academic centres at universities such as Temple University in Pennsylvania.[clarification needed]

Principles and practices

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Community integration means facilitating necessary personal assistance and support(s) for people with a disability to participate fully in their community, such as in recreation, employment, transportation, and education.[115][116][117] For children with disabilities, community integration means providing support to their families.[118][119] For adults, this can mean living in their own homes with assistance of support services.[120][121][122]

However, community support (e.g., consumer-directed services) as part of community-agency change and deinstitutionalization,[123][124] self-determination,[125][126] community participation,[127] individual planning,[128][129] social relationships[130] and personal-assistance services[131][132] became the leading direction in US community integration. Community integration has also been described as comparative to normalization, a widely known value-based system of human services (See, Wolfensberger, Nirje & Bank-Mikkelsen).

Community integration has been tied to quality assurance in the community and improved quality of life.[133][134][135] It has involved evaluations and studies over at least two decades in areas ranging from service costs to personnel studies, service typologies, best practices and innovations, and community and integration studies.[136][137][138][139][140][141][142] Internationally, quality of life has been explored in Finland, Australia, the US, Germany, Hungary, Denmark, and Canada.[143]

Global perspectives

[edit]

Researchers in the US (Julie Ann Racino, Syracuse University) and Great Britain (David Towell, King's Fund College) collaborated on community integration, including a 1990 series of international seminars on community integration in the US held at the University of Manchester (Hester Adrian Research Center), Manchester Polytechnic and Manchester Health Authority, the King's Fund College (with Lyn Rucker), Campaign for the Mentally Handicapped (London), the University of Wales at Bangor (Center for Social Policy Research), and the University of Wales (Mental Handicap Research Unit). Internationally, research began on the "first integrated generation" in countries such as Sweden[144] and integration were confirmed as a legal principle in the US.[145]

Community services support, integration and inclusion are changing in countries such as Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia),[146] Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Israel, Austria, Great Britain, Iceland, and Sweden.[147] Since the 1990s the European Union has formed, populations in the Middle East have been emancipated, community self-advocacy has developed in South America and Africa and financial ownership of US debt has been undertaken (in part) by China.[148] The United Nations[149] offers guidance and leadership through its Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (particularly Article 19, which addresses independent living and community inclusion). A book based on these principles is "Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US" (Racino, 2014)[150] which links to the diverse nation-states and rationales for continuing educational, employment, and housing segregation Segregation in Northern Ireland.

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Racino, J. (1999). Integration. "Policy, Program Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for All". (pp.8-9). London: Haworth Press.
  2. 1 2 Taylor, S., Racino, J. & Shoultz, B. (1988)."From Being in the Community to Being Part of the Community: The Proceedings of a Leadership Institute on Developmental Disabilities." Washington, DC: Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy, Institute on Community Integration.
  3. ↑ Towell, D. & Beardshaw, V. (1991). "Enabling Community Integration: The Role of Public Authorities in Promoting an Ordinary Life for People with Learning Disabilities in the 1990s." London, Great Britain: The King's Fund.
  4. ↑ Cyril et al. (2015). Exploring the role of community engagement in improving the health of disadvantaged populations: a systematic review. Global Health Action, 8(29842) 1-9.
  5. ↑ Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities.(2012). Washington, DC. Retrieved from:
  6. ↑ Inclusion International. (2011, June). Priorities for people with intellectual disabilities in implementing the UN Convention on the rights of people with disabilities: The road ahead. "The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities", Living in the community, Article 19. London, UK: Inclusion International
  7. ↑ The Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps. (2011). "About Us: Equity, Opportunity, and Inclusion." Seattle, WA: Author
  8. ↑ Ferguson, D., Ferguson, P. & Bogdan, R. (1987). If mainstreaming is the answer, what is the question? In: V. Richardson-Koehler (Ed.), "Educator's Handbook: A Research Perspective" (pp. 394-419). New York: Longman.
  9. ↑ Taylor, S. & Racino, J. (1991). Community living: Lessons for today. In: L. Meyer, C. Peck, & L. Brown (Eds.), "Critical Issues in the Lives of People with Severe Disabilities." (pp. 235-238). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  10. ↑ Wolfensberger, W. (1983). Social role valorization: A proposed new term for the principle of normalization. "Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities", 21(6), 234-239.
  11. ↑ Nirje, B. (1985). The basis and logic of the normalization principle. "Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities", 11(2), 65-68.
  12. ↑ Gustavsson, A. (ca. 1990). "Difficulties and Opportunities for People with Disabilities Living in an Integrated Society". Stockholm, Sweden: Stockholm College of Health and Caring Sciences.
  13. 1 2 Taylor, S., Biklen, D. & Knoll, J. (1987). "Community Integration for Persons with Severe Disabilities." New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
  14. ↑ Racino, J. (1999a). "Policy, Program Evaluation and Research in Disability: Community Support for All." London: The Haworth Press.
  15. 1 2 Racino, J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Toward Universal Approaches to Support." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
  16. ↑ Abery, B., Mithaug, D., Stancliffe, R., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003). "Theory in Self-Determination: Foundations for Educational Practice." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
  17. ↑ Taylor, S.J., Racino, J.A., Knoll, J.A. & Lutfiyya, Z.M. (1987). "The Nonrestrictive Environment: On Community Integration of Persons with the Most Severe Disabilities." Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press.
  18. ↑ Taylor, S. (1988). Caught in the continuum: A critical analysis of the least restrictive environment. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 13(1), 45-53.
  19. ↑ Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities. (2012). "Olmstead Implementation and the Concept of the Most Integrated Setting". Washington, DC: Author.
  20. ↑ Ferleger, D. and Boyd, P., Rights, and Dignity: The Supreme Court, Congress and People With Disabilities After Pennhurst, 5 W.New Eng.L.Rev. 327 (1983) (co-author); Anti-Institutionalization and the Supreme Court, 14 Rutgers L.Rev. 595 (1983).
  21. ↑ Ferleger, The Constitutional Right to Community Services, 26 Georgia State University Law Rev. 763 (2010)
  22. ↑ Towell, D. & Beardshaw, V. (1991, Great Britain). "Enabling Community Integration: The Role of Public Authorities in Promoting an Ordinary Life for People with Learning Disabilities in the 1990s." London, Great Britain: The King's Fund.
  23. ↑ Racino, J. (1994, USA). Creating change in states, agencies and communities. In: Bradley, V. Ashbaugh, J.W. & Blaney, B.C.(Eds.), "Creating Individual Supports for People with Developmental Disabilities: A Mandate for Change on Many Levels." (pp. 171-196). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  24. ↑ Taylor, S., Biklen, D., Lehr, S.& Searl, S. (1987). "Purposeful Integration...Inherently Equal." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy for the Technical Assistance for Parent Programs.
  25. ↑ Ford, A., Schnorr, R., Meyer, L., Davern, L., Black, J., & Dempsey, P. (1989). "The Syracuse community-referenced curriculum guide for students with moderate and severe disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  26. ↑ Heller, K. (1989). The return to the community. (pp. 8-9). American Journal of Community Psychology, 17(1): 1-15.
  27. ↑ Berrigan, C. (1984). All students belong in the classroom: Johnson City Schools, Johnson, New York. In: Duncan, J. (Eds.)(1990). "Materials on Integrated Education." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research, and Training Center in Community Integration.
  28. ↑ Murray-Seegert, C.(1989). "Nasty Girls, Thugs and Humans Like Me: Social Relationships between Severely Disabled and Nondisabled Students in the US." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  29. ↑ Biklen, D. (1987). The integration question: Educational and residential placement issues. In: Cohen, D., Donnellan, A. & Paul, R. (Eds.), "Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders." (pp. 653-667). New York: John Wiley.
  30. ↑ McDonnell, A. & Hardman, M. (1989). The desegregation of America's special schools: Strategies for change. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 14(1), 68-74.
  31. ↑ Biklen, D. (1992). "Schooling without Labels: Parents, Educators and Inclusive Educators". Philadelphia, PA: Temple University.
  32. ↑ Walker, P. (1991). Where there is a way, there is not always a will: Technology, public policy, and the school integration of children who are technology-assisted. Children's Health Care, 20(2), 68-74.
  33. ↑ Sullivan, A.P. (1994). Supported Education: Past, present and future. "Community Support Network News", 10(2), 1,9.
  34. ↑ Weir, C., Fialka, J., Timmons, J. & Nord, D. (2011, Winter/Autumn). Feature issue on post-secondary education and students with intellectual, developmental and other disabilities. "IMPACT", 23(3), 1-28.
  35. ↑ Racino, J., Walker, P. O'Connor, S. & Taylor, S. (1993). "Housing, Support and Community: Choices and Strategies for Adults with Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  36. ↑ Racino, J. & O'Connor, S. (1994). "A home of our own": Homes, neighbourhoods and personal connections. In: Hayden, M. & Abery, B. (Eds.), Challenges for a Service System in Transition: Ensuring Quality Life Experiences for Persons with Developmental Disabilities". (pp.381-403). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  37. ↑ Taylor, S. Bogdan, R. & Racino, J. (1991). "Life in the community: Case Studies of Organizations Supporting People with Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  38. ↑ Hagner, D. & Klein, J. (2005), Homeownership for individuals with disabilities: Factors in mortgage decisions. "Journal of Disability Policy Studies", 15(4), 194-200.
  39. ↑ Shoultz, B. (1989). Supporting Individuals within Their Families or in Homes of their Own: The CAP-MR/DD Program in Raleigh, North Carolina. Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  40. ↑ Ratcliffe, P. (1999). Housing inequality and 'race': some critical reflections on the concept of 'social exclusion'. "Ethnic and Racial Studies", 22(1): 1-22.
  41. ↑ Massey, D.S. & Denton, N. A. (1990). Hypersegregation in US metropolitan areas: Black and Hispanic segregation along five dimensions. "Demography", 26(1): 373-391.
  42. ↑ Rohe, W. & Freeman, L. (2001). Assisted housing and residential segregation: The role of race and ethnicity in the siting of assisted housing developments. "Journal of the American Planning Association", 67(3), 279-292.
  43. ↑ Massey, D., Condran, G.A., & Denton, M.A. (1987). The effect of residential segregation on black social and economic well-being, "Social Forces", 66, 29-56.
  44. ↑ Taylor, S.J.L. (1998). "Desegregation in Boston & Buffalo: The Influence of Local Leaders." Albany, NY: State University at Albany.
  45. ↑ Ley, D. (1993). Gentrification in recession: Social change in six Canadian inner cities, 1981-1986. "Urban Geography", 13(3): 230-256.
  46. ↑ Rosenbloom, R. A. (1979). The politics of the neighbourhood movement. South Atlantic Urban Studies, 4: 103-120.
  47. ↑ Young, I.M. (2000). "Inclusion and Democracy". New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  48. ↑ Racino, J. (1993). Madison Mutual Housing Association. In: Racino, J., Walker, P., O'Connor, S. & Taylor, S. (1993). "Housing, Support and Community". (pp. 253-280). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  49. ↑ Kappel, B. & Wetherow, D. (1986). People care about people. The Prairie Housing Cooperative. "Entourage", 1(4), 37-42.
  50. ↑ US Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2013, Spring). Confronting concentrated poverty with a mixed-income strategy. Evidence Matters. Washington, DC: US HUD, Office of Policy Development and Research.
  51. ↑ Dreier, P. & Hulchanski, J.D. (1993). The role of nonprofit housing in Canada and the United States: some comparisons. Housing Policy Debate, 4(1): 43-79.
  52. ↑ O'Brien, J. & Towell, D. (2009)/10). "Conversations about Sustainable and Inclusive Communities: An Invitation". London: Centre for Inclusive Futures"
  53. ↑ National Council on Disability. (2010). The State of Housing in America in the 21st Century: A Disability Perspective. Washington, DC: Author.
  54. ↑ Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies. (2012). State of the Nation's Housing 2012. Cambridge, MA: President and Fellows of Harvard University.
  55. ↑ Racino, J. (2014). Housing, and disability: Toward inclusive, equitable and sustainable communities. Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US. London: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor.
  56. ↑ Racino, J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Toward Universal Approaches to Support". (pp. 215-216). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
  57. ↑ Schleien, S. (1993). Access and inclusion to community leisure services. "Parks and Recreation", 28(4), 66-72.
  58. ↑ Moon, S. (1994). "Making School and Integration Fun for Everyone: Places and Ways to Integrate". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  59. ↑ Pedlar, A. (1990). Deinstitutionalization and the role of therapeutic recreationists in social integration. "Journal of Applied Recreation Research", 15(2): 101-115.
  60. ↑ Ward, L. (1988). Developing opportunities for ordinary community life. In: D. Towell (Ed.), "An Ordinary Life in Practice: Developing Comprehensive Community-based Services for People with Learning Disabilities." (pp. 68-79). London: King Edward's Hospital Fund.
  61. ↑ Browder, D. & Copper, K. (1994, April). Inclusion of older adults with mental retardation in leisure opportunities. "Mental Retardation", 32(2), 91-99.
  62. ↑ Walker, P. & Edinger, B. (1988, May). The kid from Cabin 17. "Camping Magazine, 18-21.
  63. ↑ Walker, P. (1988). Supporting children in integrated recreation. TASH Newsletter, 4-6. In: P. Walker, "Resources on Integrated Recreation/Leisure Opportunities for Children and Teens with Developmental Disabilities". Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center.
  64. ↑ Bernabe, E. & Block, M. (1994). Modifying rules of a regular girls' softball league to facilitate the inclusion of a child with severe disabilities. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 19(1), 24-31.
  65. ↑ Walker, P., Edinger, B., Willis, C. & Kenney, M. E. (1988). "Beyond the Classroom: Involving Students with Disabilities in Extracurricular Activities at Levy Middle School. Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration and Transitional Living Services of Onondaga County, Inc.
  66. ↑ Bogdan, R. (1995). "Singing for an Inclusive Society: The Community Choir". In: Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. & Lutfiyya, Z.M. (Eds), The Variety of Community Experiences: Qualitative Studies of Family and Community Life". (pp. 141-154). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  67. ↑ Fisher, E. (1995). "A Temporary Place to Belong: Inclusion in a Public Speaking and Personal Relations Course". In: Taylor, S.J., Bogdan, R. & Lutfiyya, Z. (Eds.), "The Variety of Community Experiences: Qualitative Studies of Family and Community Life".(pp. 127-140). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  68. ↑ Brydne M Edwards; Deb Cameron; Gillian A. King; Amy McPherson (12 October 2019). "Contextual strategies to support social inclusion for children with and without disabilities in recreation". Disability and Rehabilitation: 1–11. doi:10.1080/09638288.2019.1668972. ISSN 0963-8288. PMID 31607171. Wikidata Q90675935.
  69. ↑ Taylor, S.J. (1991). "Leisure and Entertainment as Participation in Social Worlds. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  70. ↑ Racino, J. (2003). "Motorsports Research Series". Rome, NY: Community and Policy Studies.
  71. ↑ Boyd, M. (1997). Feminizing paid work. "Current Sociology: Feminism in the 1990s", 45(2), 49-73
  72. ↑ Wehman, P. & Kregel, J. (1998). "More Than a Job: Securing Satisfying Careers for People with Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  73. ↑ Rogan, P., Hagner, D., & Murphy, S. (1993). Natural supports: Reconceptualizing job coach roles. "Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps", 18(4), 275-281.
  74. ↑ Danley, K.S. & Anthony, W. (1987). The choose-get-keep model. "American Rehabilitation", 13(4), 6-9.
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  94. ↑ Wehman, P., Gentry, T., West, M., et al. (2009). Community integration: Current issues in cognitive and rehabilitation for individuals with brain injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 46: 909-918.
  95. ↑ Racino, J. (2004). "Utica Monday Nite: Arts, Culture, Nature and History on the City Level." Rome, NY: Community and Policy Studies.
  96. ↑ Harris, P. (1999, July). "Community Integration Policy and Abstracts: Fifth Edition." Syracuse, New York: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center.
  97. ↑ Wehman, P., Wilson, K., Targett, P., West, M., Bricourt, J. & McKinley, W. (1999). Removing transportation barriers for persons with spinal cord injuries: An ongoing challenge to community reintegration. "Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation", 13(1), 21-30
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  99. ↑ Carling, P. (1990). Community integration of people with psychiatric disabilities: Emerging trends. In: Jacobsen, J.W., Burchard, S., & Carling, P. (Eds.), Clinical Services, Social Adjustment and Worklife in Community Living." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  100. ↑ Carling, P. (1988, April 6). Principles for Promoting Community Integration of People with Psychiatric Disabilities: The Challenge to Academic Psychology. Invited Address to the National Conference on Clinical Training Policy in Psychology at the University of Houston, Houston, Texas. Burlington, VT: Center for Change through Housing and Support, University of Vermont.
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  103. ↑ Zasler, N.D. & Kreutzer, J.S. (1991). Family and sexuality after traumatic brain injury. In: J.M. Williams & T. Kay (Eds.), Head Injury: A Family Matter. (pp. 253-270). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  104. ↑ Reynolds, W. & Rosen, B. (1994, June). Special Issue on Public Policy. "The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation", 9(2).
  105. ↑ Kreutzer, J.S., Leininger, B.S. & Harris, J.A. (1990). The evolving role of neuropsychology in community integration. In: J. Kreutzer & P. Wehman (Eds), Community Integration Following Traumatic Brain Injury. (pp. 49-66). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  106. ↑ Brain Injury Association of America and the Mount Sinai Brain Injury Research Center. (nd/2012). "State of the States: Meeting the Educational Needs of Children with Traumatic Brain Injury". NY, NY and Washington, DC: Authors.
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  111. ↑ Hayden, M. F. & Abery, B.H. (1994). Challenges for a Service System in Transition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  112. ↑ Doty, Pamela (June 2000), Cost-Effectiveness of Home and Community-Based Long-Term Care Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, archived from the original on October 15, 2011
  113. ↑ Rehabilitation Research and Training Centre on Family and Community Living. (1990). "Sharing the Vision...Meeting the Challenge." Washington, DC, Syracuse, NY & Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Living, Institute on Community Integration.
  114. ↑ Research and Training Center on Community Integration. (1988). "From Being in the Community to Being Part of the Community." Syracuse, NY: Research and Training Center, Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University.
  115. ↑ Heumann, J. (1993). A disabled woman's reflections: Myths and realities of integration. In: Racino, J., Walker, P., O'Connor, S., & Taylor, S. (Eds.), "Housing, Support and Community: Choices and Strategies for Adults with Disabilities". (pp.233-249). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  116. ↑ Racino, J. (2000). "Personnel Preparation in Disability and Community Life: Universal Approaches to Support". Springfield, IL: Charles C.Thomas Publishers.
  117. ↑ Roberts, E. & O'Brien, J. (1993). Foreword. In: J. Racino, et al, "Housing, Support and Community". (pp.xi-xx). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  118. ↑ Center on Human Policy (1987). "A Statement in Support of Children and their Families." Reprinted in: Taylor, S., Racino, J., & Walker, P. (1992). Inclusive community living. In: Stainback, W. & Stainback, S. (Eds.), "Controversial Issues Confronting Special Education."(pp.299-312) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  119. ↑ Taylor, S., Bogdan, R. & Racino, J. (1991). "Life in the Community: Case Studies of Organizations Supporting People with Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  120. ↑ Brazil, R. & Carle, N. (1988). An ordinary home life. In: Towell, D. (Ed.), "An Ordinary Life in Practice: Developing Comprehensive Community-based Services for People with Learning Disabilities. (pp. 59-67). London: King Edward's Hospital Fund.
  121. ↑ Center on Human Policy. (1989). A Statement in Support of Adults Living in the Community. Syracuse, NY: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  122. ↑ Dilys Page (1995, April). Whose services? Whose needs? "Community Development Journal", 30(2), 217-235.
  123. ↑ Racino, J. (1990). Preparing personnel to work in community support services. In: Kaiser, A.P. & McWhorter, C.M. (Eds.), Preparing Personnel to Work with Persons with Severe Disabilities." (pp.203-226). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  124. ↑ Walker, P. (2009, January). Implementation of consumer-directed services for intellectual and developmental disabilities: A national study. "Policy Research Brief", 20(1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
  125. ↑ Abery, B., Mithaug, D., Stancliffe, R., & Wehmeyer, M. (2003). "Theory in Self-Determination: Foundations for Educational Practice." Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
  126. ↑ Kennedy, M. (1993). Turning the pages of life. In: J. Racino, P. Walker, S. O'Connor, & S. Taylor (Eds.), "Housing, Support and Community". (pp. 205-216). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  127. ↑ Bogdan, R. & Taylor, S. (1999). "Building Stronger Communities for All: Thoughts about Community Participation for People with Developmental Disabilities." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University. [Presented to the President's Committee on "Intellectual Disabilities]. Taylor, Racino & Shoultz, 1988)
  128. ↑ O'Brien, J. & Mount, B. (2007) "Make A Difference: A Guidebook for Person-Centered Direct Support". Toronto, Ontario: Inclusion Press.
  129. ↑ O'Brien, J. & O'Brien, C. (2002). "Implementing Person-Centered Planning: Voices of Experience." Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Inclusion Press.
  130. ↑ Lutfiyya, Z.M (1990). "Affectionate Bonds: What We Can Learn By Listening To Friends." Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy.
  131. ↑ Center for Personal Assistance Services. (2011). "About the Center." San Francisco, CA: University of California.
  132. ↑ Weissman, J., Kennedy, J. & Litvak, S. (1991). "Personal Perspectives on Personal Assistance Services." Berkeley, CA: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Public Policy and Independent Living.
  133. ↑ Bradley, V. and Bersani, H. (1990). "Quality Assurance for People with Developmental Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  134. ↑ Felce, D. & Perry, J. (2007). Living with supports in the community: Factors associated with quality life outcomes. In: Odom, S., Horner, R., Snell, M., & Blacher, J. (Eds.), "Handbook on Developmental Disabilities". Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  135. ↑ Lutfiyya, Z.M, Moseley, C., Walker, P., Zollers, N., Lehr, S., Pugliese, J., Callahan, M., & Centra, N. (1987, July). A Question of Community: Quality of Life and Integration in "Small Residential Units" and Other Residential Settings. Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University.
  136. ↑ Braddock, D., Hemp, R., Fujuira, G., Bachelder, L., & Mitchell, D. (1990). "The State of the States in Developmental Disabilities." Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
  137. ↑ Emerson, E., Robertson, J., Gregory, N., Hatton, C. et al (2001). Quality and costs of supportive living residences and group homes in the UK. "American Journal on Intellectual Disabilities"
  138. ↑ Hagner, D. (1989). "Social Integration of Supported Employees: A Qualitative Study". Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  139. ↑ Knoll, J., Covert, S., Osuch, R., O'Connor, S., Agosta, J., & Blaney, B. (1992). "Family Support Services in the US: An End of the Decade Status Report." Cambridge, MA: Human Services Research Institute.
  140. ↑ Larson, S. & Lakin, K.C. (1992). Direct care staff stability in a national sample of small group homes. "Intellectual Disabilities", 30, 13-22.
  141. ↑ Lowe, K. & dePaiva, S. (1988). "The Evaluation of NIMROD: A Community-based Service for People with Mental Handicaps." Cardiff, Wales: The Mental Handicaps in Wales Applied Research Unit, St. David's Hospital.
  142. ↑ Racino, J. (1999a). Policy, Program Evaluation Research in Disability and Community Life: Community Support for All". London: The Haworth Press.
  143. ↑ Goode, D. (1994). "Quality of Life for Persons with Disabilities: International Perspectives". Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
  144. ↑ Tideman, M. (2005). Conquering life: The first experiences of the integrated generation In: K. Johnson & R. Traustadottir (Eds.), "Deinstitutionalization and People with Intellectual Disabilities: In and Out of Institutions". (pp. 211-221). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
  145. ↑ Turnbull, H.R., Stowe, M.J., Turnbull, A., & Schrandt, M.S. (2007). Public policy and developmental disabilities: A 35-year and 5-year prospective based on the core concepts of disability. In: Odom, S., Horner, R. H., Snell, M.E., & Blacher, J. (Eds.), "Handbook on Developmental Disabilities". (pp.15-34). London: Guilford Press.
  146. ↑ Towell, D. & Racino, J. (1990). "Consultation with the National Health Service of Czechoslovakian Government in Prague, Czechoslovakia". London, UK & Syracuse, NY: National Development Team, Great Britain and Syracuse University, Center on Human Policy, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  147. ↑ Center on Human Policy (1990). "Meetings at the Center on Human Policy." Syracuse, NY: Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University, Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  148. ↑ Racino, J. (2011, draft). "Outcomes of Technical Assistance in Community Integration in States in the US: A Retrospective and Prospective on the Rehabilitation Research and Training Centers. Rome, NY: Author.
  149. ↑ United Nations.The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 19, Living in the community. ENABLE. 2012. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Disability. New York City: United Nations.
  150. ↑ Racino, J. (2014, in press). "Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US". NY, NY: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor.
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