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// Workers AI · dad joke modeWhy did Spinal fMRI go to therapy? It had a backbone issue.

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An example of T2-weighted spinal cord fMRI data in a mid-line sagittal slice showing the brain, brainstem, and spinal cord

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of the spinal cord (spinal fMRI) is an adaptation of the fMRI method that has been developed for use in the brain[1]. Although the basic principles underlying the methods are the same, spinal fMRI requires a number of specific adaptations to accommodate the periodic motion of the spinal cord, the small cross-sectional dimensions (roughly 8 mm × 15 mm at the largest region) and length (~45 cm in adult humans) of the spinal cord, and the fact that the magnetic field that is used for MRI varies with position in the spinal cord because of magnetic susceptibility differences between bone and tissues[2][3][4][5]. Spinal fMRI has been used to produce maps of neuronal activity at most levels of the spinal cord in response to various stimuli, such as touch, vibration, and thermal changes, and with motor tasks[6][7]. Research applications of spinal fMRI to date include studies of normal sensory and motor function, pain processing, and studies of the effects of trauma and multiple sclerosis on the spinal cord[8][9][10][11][12][13].

Two different data acquisition methods have been applied, both based on the established BOLD (blood-oxygenation-level dependent) fMRI methods used in the brain. The majority of the studies published to date are based on T2-weighted BOLD methods (Figure 1). This change from standard brain fMRI methods is to avoid the use of echo-planar imaging (EPI) for spatial encoding. EPI methods suffer from severe spatial distortions in the lower brainstem and spinal cord, and require relatively small acquisition matrices which result in low signal-to-noise ratio. In addition, the use of T2*-weighted methods, as is common for brain fMRI, produces highly variable results in the non-uniform magnetic field environment in the lower brainstem and spinal cord. A number of fMRI studies have reported function in the cervical spinal cord using T2*-weighted EPI methods[14][15][16]. However, the data required specialized methods to correct spatial distortions and signal loss, and the results were shown to suffer from problems with reproducibility[17]. By avoiding EPI, single-shot fast spin-echo methods such as HASTE can provide high-quality BOLD fMRI data without spatial distortions and with higher signal-to-noise ratios, and fMRI data can be acquired in sagittal slices in order to span a large extent of the spinal cord. Large volume coverage enables more accurate spatial localization and identification of connectivity between spinal cord and brainstem regions[18]. The cost of the higher quality of fast spin-echo methods such as HASTE is that they are slower than EPI methods. However, fMRI methods can be designed to compensate for the lower speed because BOLD responses are also slow[1] .

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 Powers, Jocelyn M.; Ioachim, Gabriela; Stroman, Patrick W. (10 September 2018). "Ten Key Insights into the Use of Spinal Cord fMRI". Brain Sciences. 8 (9): 173. doi:10.3390/brainsci8090173. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC 6162663. PMID 30201938.
  2. ↑ Harita, Shreyas; Stroman, Patrick W. (December 2017). "Confirmation of resting-state BOLD fluctuations in the human brainstem and spinal cord after identification and removal of physiological noise". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 78 (6): 2149–2156. doi:10.1002/mrm.26606. ISSN 0740-3194. PMID 28074492.
  3. ↑ Figley, C.R.; Yau, D.; Stroman, P.W. (September 2008). "Attenuation of Lower-Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral Spinal Cord Motion: Implications for Imaging Human Spinal Cord Structure and Function". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 29 (8): 1450–1454. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A1154. ISSN 0195-6108. PMC 8119046. PMID 18524976.
  4. ↑ Stroman, Patrick W.; Figley, Chase R.; Cahill, Catherine M. (July 2008). "Spatial normalization, bulk motion correction and coregistration for functional magnetic resonance imaging of the human cervical spinal cord and brainstem". Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 26 (6): 809–814. doi:10.1016/j.mri.2008.01.038. PMID 18499380.
  5. ↑ Figley, C.R.; Stroman, P.W. (July 2007). "Investigation of human cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord motion: Implications for imaging spinal cord structure and function". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 58 (1): 185–189. doi:10.1002/mrm.21260. ISSN 0740-3194. PMID 17659610.
  6. ↑ Wheeler-Kingshott, C.A.; Stroman, P.W.; Schwab, J.M.; Bacon, M.; Bosma, R.; Brooks, J.; Cadotte, D.W.; Carlstedt, T.; Ciccarelli, O.; Cohen-Adad, J.; Curt, A.; Evangelou, N.; Fehlings, M.G.; Filippi, M.; Kelley, B.J. (January 2014). "The current state-of-the-art of spinal cord imaging: Applications". NeuroImage. 84: 1082–1093. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.07.014. PMC 4371134. PMID 23859923.
  7. ↑ Stroman, P.W.; Wheeler-Kingshott, C.; Bacon, M.; Schwab, J.M.; Bosma, R.; Brooks, J.; Cadotte, D.; Carlstedt, T.; Ciccarelli, O.; Cohen-Adad, J.; Curt, A.; Evangelou, N.; Fehlings, M.G.; Filippi, M.; Kelley, B.J. (January 2014). "The current state-of-the-art of spinal cord imaging: Methods". NeuroImage. 84: 1070–1081. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.124. PMC 4371133. PMID 23685159.
  8. ↑ Agosta, Federica; Valsasina, Paola; Caputo, Domenico; Stroman, Patrick W.; Filippi, Massimo (February 2008). "Tactile-associated recruitment of the cervical cord is altered in patients with multiple sclerosis". NeuroImage. 39 (4): 1542–1548. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.048. PMID 18061484.
  9. ↑ Stroman, Patrick W.; Khan, Hamza S.; Bosma, Rachel L.; Cotoi, Andrea I.; Leung, Roxanne; Cadotte, David W.; Fehlings, Michael. G. (August 2016). "Changes in Pain Processing in the Spinal Cord and Brainstem after Spinal Cord Injury Characterized by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging". Journal of Neurotrauma. 33 (15): 1450–1460. doi:10.1089/neu.2015.4257. ISSN 0897-7151. PMID 26801315.
  10. ↑ Cadotte, David W.; Bosma, Rachael; Mikulis, David; Nugaeva, Natalia; Smith, Karen; Pokrupa, Ronald; Islam, Omar; Stroman, Patrick W.; Fehlings, Michael G. (19 September 2012). Combs, Colin (ed.). "Plasticity of the Injured Human Spinal Cord: Insights Revealed by Spinal Cord Functional MRI". PLOS ONE. 7 (9) e45560. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...745560C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045560. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3446947. PMID 23029097.
  11. ↑ Stroman, Patrick W.; Staud, Roland; Pukall, Caroline F. (24 January 2025). Sittiprapaporn, Phakkharawat (ed.). "Evidence of a persistent altered neural state in people with fibromyalgia syndrome during functional MRI studies and its relationship with pain and anxiety". PLOS ONE. 20 (1) e0316672. Bibcode:2025PLoSO..2016672S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0316672. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 11759356. PMID 39854440.
  12. ↑ Hassanpour, Shima; Algitami, Hannan; Umraw, Maya; Merletti, Jessica; Keast, Brieana; Stroman, Patrick W. (30 April 2024). "Investigating Descending Pain Regulation in Fibromyalgia and the Link to Altered Autonomic Regulation by Means of Functional MRI Data". Brain Sciences. 14 (5): 450. doi:10.3390/brainsci14050450. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC 11118798. PMID 38790429.
  13. ↑ Powers, Jocelyn M.; Koning, Elena; Ioachim, Gabriela; Stroman, Patrick W. (10 December 2024). "Pain is what you think: functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence toward a cognitive and affective approach for pain research". Frontiers in Pain Research. 5 1388460. doi:10.3389/fpain.2024.1388460. ISSN 2673-561X. PMC 11666527. PMID 39720318.
  14. ↑ Eippert, Falk; Kong, Yazhuo; Winkler, Anderson M.; Andersson, Jesper L.; Finsterbusch, Jürgen; Büchel, Christian; Brooks, Jonathan C.W.; Tracey, Irene (February 2017). "Investigating resting-state functional connectivity in the cervical spinal cord at 3 T". NeuroImage. 147: 589–601. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.072. PMC 5315056. PMID 28027960.
  15. ↑ Eippert, Falk; Finsterbusch, Jürgen; Bingel, Ulrike; Büchel, Christian (16 October 2009). "Direct Evidence for Spinal Cord Involvement in Placebo Analgesia". Science. 326 (5951): 404. Bibcode:2009Sci...326..404E. doi:10.1126/science.1180142. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002E-89B9-7. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19833962.
  16. ↑ Tinnermann, A.; Geuter, S.; Sprenger, C.; Finsterbusch, J.; Büchel, C. (6 October 2017). "Interactions between brain and spinal cord mediate value effects in nocebo hyperalgesia". Science. 358 (6359): 105–108. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..105T. doi:10.1126/science.aan1221. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28983051.
  17. ↑ Oliva, Valeria; Hartley-Davies, Ron; Moran, Rosalyn; Pickering, Anthony E; Brooks, Jonathan CW (26 January 2022). "Simultaneous brain, brainstem, and spinal cord pharmacological-fMRI reveals involvement of an endogenous opioid network in attentional analgesia". eLife. 11 e71877. doi:10.7554/eLife.71877. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC 8843089. PMID 35080494.
  18. ↑ Stroman, Patrick W.; Umraw, Maya; Keast, Brieana; Algitami, Hannan; Hassanpour, Shima; Merletti, Jessica (8 November 2023). "Structural and Physiological Modeling (SAPM) for the Analysis of Functional MRI Data Applied to a Study of Human Nociceptive Processing". Brain Sciences. 13 (11): 1568. doi:10.3390/brainsci13111568. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC 10669617. PMID 38002528.
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