Pakawan languages
| Pakawan | |
|---|---|
| (disputed) | |
| Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
| Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | None |
The Pakawan languages are a proposed small language family formerly spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas.
Classification
[edit]Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. This is followed by more modern scholars.[1] The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".[2]
Common vocabulary
[edit]The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Core Pakawan | Peripheral Pakawan | tentative reconstruction[2] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coahuilteco[3] | Comecrudo[3] | Cotoname[3] | Karankawa[3] | Tónkawa[4] | |
| axtē 'two' | ale-kueten 'two' | haíkia 'two' | #al-, #axte 'two' | ||
| '' | #ali 'ear' | ||||
| uxualʼ 'heaven' | apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' | #apel' 'sky' | |||
| apam 'water' | áx̣ 'water' | klai, komkom 'water' | #axə 'juice, water' | ||
| tciene 'salt' | dá-än | dem, ketac | #dem 'salt' | ||
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' | kai 'to eat' | aknámas 'to eat' | #kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
| axām 'not' | kam 'no' | kóṃ 'not' | #kam 'no(t)' | ||
| hām 'to eat' | kam 'to eat' | hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' | #kam 'to eat, drink' | ||
| '' | #kamkam 'body of water' | ||||
| xasal 'heart' | kayasel 'heart' | láhama 'heart' | #kayasel 'heart' | ||
| pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' | xuăxe 'low (of water)' | #k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | |||
| kemen 'vein' | kemma 'bow' | #keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | |||
| pa=kna(x) 'high, big' | kenex 'good' | #kenex 'good, big' | |||
| '' | ō' 'sun' | klos, dóowal 'sun' | #ketekawi 'sun, star' | ||
| talōm 'fire' | klewem, klewen, len | mánĕx 'fire' | kwátci, kwoilesem 'fire' | #klewem 'fire' | |
| '' | kĕnám | kanín | #knem 'breast' | ||
| kuas | kial | sä'x | #kual 'blood' | ||
| kuan 'to go' | kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' | awóyo! 'go over there!' | #kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
| k’āu 'husband' | gnax, na 'man' | xuaináxe 'man' | #kwainaxə 'man' | ||
| '' | kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' | ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' | #kwak 'reed' | ||
| pe=kla 'to suck' | huäxle 'to suck' | #kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | |||
| kʼāu 'to marry' | kuau, kwai 'married' | #k'aw 'to marry' | |||
| '' | wax 'belly' | kox 'belly' | #k'wax 'belly' | ||
| tšum 'night, evening' | lesum, lesom 'evening' | #lesum 'evening' | |||
| '' | #lel 'buttock, leg' | ||||
| '' | katówan | #lot 'arm' | |||
| '' | #makə 'to give' | ||||
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' | mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' | #maɬ- 'to fall' | |||
| māux 'hand' | mapi 'hand' | miapa 'wing' | #mapi 'hand' | ||
| pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' | msae 'red' | #msa'ol 'red' | |||
| el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' | pawe 'to sit' | #pawə 'to sit' | |||
| pilʼ 'one' | pe-kueten 'one' | #pil' 'one' | |||
| ānua 'moon' | kan 'moon' | #q'an 'moon' | |||
| saayēx 'to be wanting' | #sayex 'to want' | ||||
| sel 'straw' | suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' | #sel 'grass' | |||
| pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' | thawe 'painted (on body, face)' | #tkawai 'paint' | |||
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' | tete 'how, what, why' | *tit 'what' | #t'ete- 'what' | ||
| tʼil 'day' | al 'sun' | o 'sun' | #t'al 'sun' | ||
| xop 'far, distant' | huanpa, xuanpa 'far' | #xwanpa 'far' | |||
| '' | yá-ĕx | #ya'ex 'nose' | |||
| yēwal 'to bewitch' | yamel, yamis 'devil' | #yameɬ 'evil spirit' | |||
| na- 'my, me' | na 'I' | na 'I' | |||
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' | emnã 'you (sg.)' | *men 'you (sg.)' | |||
| pamawau | |||||
| la-ak 'goose' | krak 'goose' | ||||
| kol 'crane' | karakor 'crane' | ||||
| ketuau 'dog' | kowá-u 'dog' | ||||
| kiextuén 'rabbit' | kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' | ||||
| pa=kwessom 'orphan' | kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' | ||||
| malāux 'male sexual organs' | melkuai 'female sexual organs' | ||||
| xūm 'to die' | kamau 'to kill' | wátxuka 'to kill' | |||
| tzin 'I' | yen 'I' | ||||
| tzōtz 'chest' | yeso knem 'to nurse' | ||||
| *tšei 'to hear' | ye 'to hear' | ||||
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' | alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' | ||||
| tām 'woman's breast' | dom 'breast' | ||||
| mās 'to look, observe' | max, ma, mahe 'to see' | ||||
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' | kayau 'ache, sore' | ||||
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
- Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
- Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
- Syncope of
- Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
- /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
- /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
- s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
- Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Lexical comparison
[edit]The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940).[5] The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964),[6] which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960).[7] Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948),[8] and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).[4]
| language | head | hair | eye | ear | nose | tooth | tongue | mouth | hand | foot | breast | meat | blood | bone | person | name |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | eláx | eláx, emól | u-i | alí | yáx̣ | í | expén | xál | mapí | emí, lemí | kném | ewé, kai | kiál | ehûei, klemí, xí | estók | lekaú |
| Cotoname | makuát | makuát | arókwan | yá-ĕx | ayésim | kĕnám | kemás | sä'x | xuaináxe | |||||||
| Karankawa | en-okea | ekia aikui | em-ikus | em-ai aluak | é, dolonakin | a-lean | emi-akwoi | étsma | eham, kékeya | kanín | ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe | |||||
| Tonkawa | taˑkey | xʔaˑk | nemtan-xaˑ | henicxayʔan | yamʔacxan | ne̠ta̠le- | kala | nota- | naˑtan | ʔawas | ʔoˑn | ne̠kame- | tickan | hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' | ||
| Coahuilteco | māux | tām | ahāuh | kuās, hātz | pīlam | aux | ||||||||||
| Solano | nikaog | |||||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | |||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | kai | |||||||||||||||
| Naolan | mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) | ma naːme; manáme (of deer) |
| language | dog | fish | louse | tree | leaf | flower | water | fire | stone | earth | salt | road | eat | die | I | you |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comecrudo | ketuaú, klám | atuís, selaú | ak 'blackish louse' | xaí | sel | awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí | áx̣ | klewém, len | woyekuél | kamlá | sepén | ál | to, kai | kamaú, plau, pokuét | na, ye-inán, yén | nánã |
| Cotoname | kowá-u | áx̣ | mánĕx | pén | dá-än | haháme | wátĕxo | |||||||||
| Karankawa | kec | áṃ, kiles | akwiní | klai, komkom | húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem | dem, ketac | aknámas | náyi | áwa | |||||||
| Tonkawa | ʔekˑan | neswalʔan | xaˑsoy-tlc | nahen- | ʔaˑx | mʔelʔan | yatexan | haˑc | mamʔe- | naˑx | ya̠xa- | hewawa- | saˑ- | naˑ-ya | ||
| Coahuilteco | talōm | tāp | hām | xūm, tzam | na, tzin | |||||||||||
| Solano | apam | tciene | namō 'eat it' | na- (?) | ||||||||||||
| Maratino | migtikui | paahtcu 'kill' | ||||||||||||||
| Quinigua | karama | ama, ami; ka | ana | ka, kwa, wa | pixa | ama | ama; ka(ene) | |||||||||
| Naolan | mi; míː | mi koːl; ma koːl (my) | mi, ma (poss.) |
References
[edit]- ↑ Campbell, Lyle (2024-06-25), "North American Indian Languages North of Mexico", The Indigenous Languages of the Americas (1 ed.), Oxford University PressNew York, pp. 28–145, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673461.003.0002, ISBN 978-0-19-767346-1, retrieved 2025-04-17
- 1 2 Ramer, Alexis Manaster (1996). "Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan". Anthropological Linguistics. 38 (1): 1–38. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028442.
- 1 2 3 4 Swanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico.
- 1 2 Hoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- ↑ Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office.
- ↑ Gursky, Karl-Heinz (October 1964). "The Linguistic Position of the Quinigua Indians". International Journal of American Linguistics. 30 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 325–327. doi:10.1086/464792. JSTOR 1263527. S2CID 143736051.
- ↑ del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515.
- ↑ Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris.
Further reading
[edit]- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
- Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290.
- Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.