Millet people
| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
 Bulgaria | 84,000[1] |
 Romania | 20,640[2] |
| Languages | |
| Turkish | |
| Religion | |
| Islam, Christianity | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Abdals | |
The Millets (Turkish: Millet, also in Turkish pl. Milletler) are a Turkish-speaking ethnic group residing in Bulgaria and Romania. They are native speakers of the Turkish language, and the majority adhere to Islam.[1][2][3]
Etymology
[edit]The term "Millet" derives from the Millet system (e.g., Millet-i İslâm), an Ottoman administrative structure that categorized ethno-religious communities within the Ottoman Empire. For the community, identifying as "Millet" has evolved into an endonym representing not only adherence to Islam, but also speaking the Turkish language, maintaining traditional artisan crafts, and committing to Turkish and Ottoman cultural heritage.[3][2][4]
Also known endonyms are Turkmen or Tayfa,[a] specially in Crimea.[5]
History
[edit]Ottoman Period
[edit]Historical and archival research, particularly studies by anthropologist Egemen Yılgür, indicates that the origins of the community trace back to nomadic Turkmen tribes in Southern Anatolia (Kahramanmaraş, Çukurova) during the Seljuk and early Ottoman periods.[3] The Millets have a similar origin with the Abdals of Turkey.[3][6]
In 18th- and 19th-century Ottoman tax registers (tahrir defterleri), Imperial Council registers (Mühimme Defterleri), and Sharia court records (Şer’iyye Sicilleri), this group was recorded as Göçer evlü Türkmān Ḳibṭīleri ("Nomadic Turkmen Copts"). These groups maintained symbiotic relationships with Turkmen tribal confederations, such as the Dulkadirli (İfrāz-ı Ẕūlkadriyye), Beydili, Komarlı, Tekeli, and Varsak—providing specialized services including blacksmithing, musicianship, woodworking, and animal husbandry.[3]
In the late 17th century, in response to compulsory Ottoman settlement policies (such as the Resettlement Policy of 1691), these groups altered their traditional migratory routes and dispersed to Rumelia (the Balkan Peninsula) and the Crimea under the administrative category Rūmėli Perākendesi.[3] They settled with other Turkmens to the Balkans.[7][8]
Later, groups of them went to Desht-i Kipchak,[7] even further to Crimea.[9][10] Records show that Turkmens were mentioned in Desht-i Kipchak during the Crimean Khanate and afterwards.[11] They came into contact with the Tatars. Some of them settled in Dobrudja in the late 19th century.[12]
However in Crimea some researchers suggest Kurdish origin.[13]
Taxation Differences
[edit]In the Ottoman fiscal system, settled Balkan Roma paid the "Roma Poll Tax" (Cizye-i Gebrān), whereas the Türkmān Ḳibṭīleri were taxed under state revenues (Māl-ı Mīrī) applicable to Turkmen tribal communities until the Ottoman tax reforms of 1858. This fiscal distinction confirms that the Ottoman administration kept this group administratively and fiscally separate from standard Romani groups.[3]
Subgroups
[edit]The Millet community is internally divided into two subgroups based on their traditional occupational specializations and geographical distribution:
- Usta Millet ("Craftsman Nation / Nation of Masters"): Traditionally engaged in blacksmithing, metalworking, carpentry, and construction crafts. The name derives from the Turkish word usta ("master craftsman").[3][14]
- Mehter Millet: Professional musicians who perform on the davul (drum),[b] zurna, and other instruments at weddings and ceremonies, continuing the mehter musical tradition in civilian life.[3][15]
- Tatar subgroup of Mehter Millet: They established close historical contact with Nogais and Crimean Tatars in Dobruja and Crimea. Their primary languages are Turkish and Crimean Tatar.[3]
Roma
[edit]Romani groups that gradually adopted the "Millet" identity for social status and religious alignment, but speak the Romani language at home. There is a distinct social distance between the core Usta/Mehter Millet groups and the Roma.[3][2]
Language
[edit]The native language of the Millet community is Turkish (specifically Balkan Turkish dialects). In Dobruja and Crimea, Crimean Tatar is also spoken.[3][1]
In the early 20th century, ethnologists such as Bernard Gilliat-Smith (writing under the pseudonym Petulengro) documented that the Millet group in and around Varna "did not speak a single word of Romani" and were indistinguishable from the local Turkish population.[16]
Teberce
[edit]The artisan and musician branches of the community preserved a secret in-group jargon (argot) called Teberce, which is also used by the Abdals (Tebers) of Anatolia. The vocabulary used by the Ghurbet-Turkmens in Crimea shares significant similarities with that used by Abdals in Kırşehir and Adana (e.g., yeken "money", yersit/hersit "bread", genne "to come/go", aşınna "to take/steal").[3]
Religion
[edit]The vast majority of the community adheres to Islam. Circumcision ceremonies, Islamic holidays, halal dietary principles, and funeral customs are central to social life. Historically, traces of Alevi, Bektashi or Shia traditions (such as mourning during Muharram and singing of Ilahs)[17][18] have also been documented among certain branches in Crimea and Rumelia.[3] A small minority adheres to Christianity.[1]
Distribution
[edit]Today, the Millet population is concentrated in the following regions:
Social Status
[edit]The Millet community faces double marginalization within the ethnic landscape of the Balkans:
- From the perspective of state institutions and majority populations: State agencies and academia in Bulgaria and Romania often label this group sociologically as "Muslim Roma" or "Turkish Roma" (Turski Tsigani in Bulgarian, Țigani Turci in Romanian) and include them in EU Roma integration projects.[3][2]
- From the perspective of ethnic Turks: The local settled Turkish population, despite shared cultural and religious ties, sometimes maintains a subtle social distance from the Millet community.[3][19]
Although frequently categorized under "Muslim Roma" or "Turkish Roma" in official censuses and academic literature, members of the community firmly reject Romani ethnic identity. They define themselves ethnically and culturally as Turkish/Turkic and specifically use the endonym "Millet".[3][14]
However, among the community in Crimea, the term "Millet" is less common due to geographical and historical factors, instead, the similar designation "Tayfa" is used.[3]
Contemporary Political and Legal Struggle
[edit]Because there is no separate ethnic category for "Millet" in official Bulgarian censuses, the vast majority of community members declare their ethnicity as "Turk".[1][14]
In recent years, the community has initiated a legal and social struggle through civic associations. For example, the Usta Millet Council organized in Glavinitsa, Silistra Province, submitted a petition to the Council of Ministers of Bulgaria, declaring:"We are not Roma, we are Usta Millet. Our native language is Turkish. We demand that official institutions and the media stop calling us Roma and that incorrect statements in publications be corrected."[14]
In the mid-2020s, the official status of the Millet community and the question of whether they should be recognized as an independent ethnic group became widely debated in Bulgarian public discourse, media, and politics.[19]
In his field study titled "The Millet Ethnic Community in Bulgaria" (Миллетската етническа общност в България), researcher Dr. Asen Kolev brought the insider perspective into academia. By examining the conceptual differences between "people" and "nation/community", Kolev argued that the identity developed by the group does not fully align either with classical Romani categories or with settled Turkish sociology, representing a distinct ethno-social structure.[19]
In politics, during the 2024–2025 Bulgarian general elections, statements by Delyan Peevski, a leader of the Movement for Rights and Freedoms (DPS), brought the issue onto the national agenda. Peevski discursively separated the Millet community from the traditional ethnic Turkish voter base during election campaigns and promised that they would be treated "not as second-class, but as first-class citizens".[19][20]
These developments sparked debate among Bulgarian scholars and ethno-sociologists over whether the state should officially recognize the Millet community as a distinct ethnic or minority category.[19]
Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Millet in Bulgaria: People Group Profile". Joshua Project. Demographic Database. Retrieved 2026.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cupcea, Adriana; Omer, Metin. "Invisible Minorities. Millet, Turkish Tinsmiths and Davulcu in Dobruja (Romania)". Research project supported by the Gerda Henkel Foundation. Retrieved 2026.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Yılgür, Egemen. (2025). "Turcoman Gypsies": The intersectional/multiple identities of a peripatetic group and its historical segmentation. Romani Studies, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 33–66. doi:10.3828/rost.2024.21
- ↑ Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin. (2001). Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire: A contribution to the history of the Balkans. Hatfield: University of Hertfordshire Press.
- ↑ Kizilov 2021.
- ↑ Abdallar, Küre Ansiklopedi
- 1 2 Ocak, Ahmet Yaşar (2002). Sarı Saltık: Popüler İslam'ın Balkanlar'daki Destanı Öncüsü (XIII. Yüzyıl) Ankara 2002.
- ↑ Kiel, Machiel (8 Mart 2012). "The Türbe of Sarı Saltık At Babadag-Dobrudja". Güneydoğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Dergisi (6-7): 0-0. ISSN 0378-3863
- ↑ H. Stānescu, "Monuments d’Art Turc en Dobroudja", SAO, III (1961), s. 177-189
- ↑ İnalcık, Halil (2005). "Türkler ve Balkanlar" (PDF). BAL-TAM Türklük Bilgisi (3): 20–44. ISSN 1452-2179.
- ↑ Туркмены на Юге Украины в конце XVIII – середине XIX вв.
- ↑ Küçükdürüm, Ezginur & Akat, Abdullah (2026). Dobruca Türk-Tatar müziği ve kültürel temsiliyet (Dobruja Turkish Tatar music and cultural representation). Online Journal of Music Sciences
- ↑ Kizilov 2021, p. 40-41.
- 1 2 3 4 5 "Ние не сме роми, а уста миллет" [We are not Roma, but Usta Millet]. OffNews Bulgaria (2020). Retrieved 2026.
- ↑ Slavkova, Magdalena. (2004). "The 'Turkish Gypsies' in Bulgaria and their new religious identity". In: D. Todorović (ed.), Evangelization, Conversion, Proselytism. Niš: Punta, pp. 87–100.
- ↑ Petulengro (Gilliat-Smith, Bernard J.). (1915–1916). "Report on the Gypsy tribes of North-East Bulgaria I". Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Third Series, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1–55.
- ↑ Kizilov 2021, p. 41.
- ↑ "Развитие традиционных ремесел и промыслов в Крымском ханстве". Realnoe vremya (in Russian). 11 August 2023.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Kolev, Asen. (8 February 2025). "Ще признаем ли милета за отделен етнос в България?" [Will we recognize the Millet as a separate ethnic group in Bulgaria?]. Etno Forum. Field analysis. Retrieved 2026.
- ↑ "Пеевски измисли нов 'етнос' – и го нарече 'миллет'". Filibeliler.com (2025). Retrieved 2026.
Sources
[edit]- Kizilov, Mikhail (2021). "Уничтожение цыган Симферополя и "решение" цыганского вопроса в оккупированном Крыму". Историческое наследие Крыма (in Russian) (32).
- Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin (2004). "Segmentation vs. consolidation: The example of four Gypsy groups in CIS" (PDF). Romani Studies. 14 (2): 145–191. doi:10.3828/rs.2004.6.