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Mapocho River

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mapocho)

Mapocho River
The Mapocho crossing the Providencia district (looking east)
Map
Native nameRío Mapocho (Spanish)
Location
CountryChile
RegionSantiago Metropolitan Region
Physical characteristics
Source 
 • locationConfluence of the San Francisco and Molina rivers, Cerro El Plomo, Lo Barnechea
 • coordinates33°22′25″S 70°23′49″W / 33.3735°S 70.397°W / -33.3735; -70.397
 • elevation1,200 to 252 m (3,937 to 827 ft)[1]
Mouth 
 • location
Maipo River, near El Monte
 • coordinates
33°26′37″S 70°49′26″W / 33.44367°S 70.82392°W / -33.44367; -70.82392
Length110 km (68 mi)[2]
Basin size
4,230 km2 (1,630 sq mi)[2]
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftCanal San Carlos, Zanjón de la Aguada
 • rightArrayán Creek, Lampa Creek

The Mapocho River (Spanish: Río Mapocho) is a river in central Chile. It flows about 110 kilometres (68 mi) from the Andes through the Santiago Metropolitan Region and the capital, Santiago, before joining the Maipo River. Fed by both snowmelt and rain, it runs generally from northeast to southwest through fourteen communes and divides the capital roughly in two.

Santiago was founded on the river's banks in 1541, and the river has shaped the city ever since. Spanish colonial authorities built embankments against its floods, and in the late 1880s engineers confined its central stretch to a concrete channel. For much of the 20th century the Mapocho received most of the city's untreated sewage. A sanitation program completed in 2010 ended the direct discharges, and Santiago's wastewater is now treated. Since then the river has become a focus of urban parks, cultural projects and recreation, and in 2025 Chilean authorities declared its full length an urban wetland. Floods, contamination from mining in the upper basin, and the river's declining water supply remain concerns.

Etymology

[edit]

The name is usually traced to Mapudungun and rendered as Mapu chuco, "water that penetrates the land". The 19th-century geographer Francisco Astaburuaga instead derived it from mapu ("land") and che ("people"), noting that the region was once called "land of people" and that the name later came to be applied only to the river.[3]

Course

[edit]

Upper course

[edit]

The Mapocho begins at the confluence of the San Francisco River (25 km (16 mi)) and the Molina River (20 km (12 mi)) at La Ermita, in the commune of Lo Barnechea, in the Andes near Cerro El Plomo. The main tributary of the San Francisco is Yerba Loca Creek, which drains the protected area of the same name. The Molina is fed by the Iver Glacier, which lies on Cerro El Plomo. A few kilometers downstream the Mapocho receives Arrayán Creek (17 km (11 mi)) from the right and enters the urban area of Santiago.

The river under the Puente Ñilhue, next to the park of the same name in Lo Barnechea

The last western spurs of the Andes in this area turn the river toward the south. Near Cerro San Cristóbal and the Costanera Center complex it receives the waters of the artificial Canal San Carlos (26 km (16 mi)), which carries water diverted from the Maipo and colors the Mapocho with the sediment it carries.

Through Santiago

[edit]

The river runs about 30 kilometres (19 mi) through the city, bordered on its north bank by the Costanera Norte expressway and by Santa María and Presidente Salvador Allende avenues. Its south bank has a chain of parks, Costanera Sur avenue and several other roads, and an underground sewage interceptor.

From the Providencia area the river flows southwest to Plaza Baquedano, a focal point of the city. In colonial times the Mapocho split here into two branches, and the southern one was later converted into a promenade that is now Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins (see History).

Through Providencia and Santiago the river runs in an artificial concrete channel about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) long, 40 metres (130 ft) wide and 5 metres (16 ft) deep, which contains 21 of its 40 bridges in the capital.[4]

The river then turns northwest. Some of the city's best-known landmarks rose along its southern bank in this stretch, including the Parque Forestal, the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, the Mercado Central and the Estación Mapocho. In Renca and Quinta Normal three collapsible pneumatic gates feed the artificial navigable arm of the Parque de la Familia. Farther northwest, two highway bridges, part of the two branches of the Autopista Central, connect the north and south sides. The longer of them, the Gran Envergadura Bridge, is the largest on the river at 1,022 metres (3,353 ft).[5]

Lower course

[edit]

Approximately at the longitude of the summit of Cerro Renca, the river changes from a northwesterly to a southwesterly direction. Near the southern end of Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport it turns south. In Pudahuel it receives Lampa Creek, and in Maipú the Zanjón de la Aguada (27 km (17 mi)), the last two tributaries before it leaves the urban area. It then passes Padre Hurtado, Peñaflor and Talagante and empties into the Maipo River in El Monte.

In all, the river passes through fourteen communes: Lo Barnechea, Vitacura, Las Condes, Providencia, Santiago, Renca, Quinta Normal, Cerro Navia, Pudahuel, Maipú, Padre Hurtado, Peñaflor, Talagante and El Monte.

Watershed

[edit]

The upper Mapocho basin is bounded on the west by that of the Olivares River and on the east by that of Colina Creek, both of which drain south to the Maipo. To the north it borders several subbasins of the Juncal River, which flows into the Aconcagua River.

Hydrology

[edit]

The Mapocho has a nival-pluvial regime, meaning that it is fed by both snowmelt and rainfall. Rain is heaviest in winter, but in the upper basin flows peak in spring (September to November) as the mountain snowpack melts.[6] Its mean annual flow at the Los Almendros gauging station, on the upper river, is about 6.1 cubic metres per second (220 cu ft/s), and in its lower course the tributaries and drainage from the city change it to a mixed rain-and-snow regime.[7] The river's water is heavily used. According to a 2004 national water directorate study, the reach downstream of the Canal San Carlos confluence supplies irrigation for about 33,954 hectares (83,900 acres) of farmland in communes to the west of Santiago.[8]

History

[edit]

Pre-Columbian period

[edit]

Archaeological research in recent decades has indicated that an Inca settlement stood on the banks of the Mapocho before the Spanish arrived, and that Santiago was founded over it.[9] Research based on early Spanish land-grant records indicates that, from the early 15th century until the Spanish arrival in 1540, the Incas and allied local groups built an extensive network of irrigation canals in the Mapocho and Maipo valleys, bringing thousands of hectares into cultivation.[10] The longest canal drawn from the Mapocho ran through the Vitacura area.[11]

Spanish colonial period

[edit]

Pedro de Valdivia reached the area in December 1540 and found the valley suffering from famine caused by drought.[12] According to tradition, the local Promaucaes advised him to settle on an island between two arms of the river, beside a small hill called Huelén (now Cerro Santa Lucía). Recent archaeology has cast doubt on this account. In January 1541 the Spanish defeated the Picunches led by the chief Michimalonco in the battle of the Mapocho River, and on February 12, 1541, Valdivia founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura on the river's south bank, at the foot of Huelén.

An early picture of the river's relation to the city comes from the flood of July 1574, when the overflowing Mapocho ran through streets between the city's eastern edge and the sea, crossed the main plaza and the cabildo building, and swept away several Indigenous people trying to cross near the Merced church.[13][14] The cabildo's clerk, Nicolás de Gárnica, rode through the city and recorded that the water reached the girths of the horses.[14] Over time the city expanded across the river, and the farming district of La Chimba (now Recoleta and Independencia) grew up on the north bank.

The Mapocho in the 18th century. The Cañada, a former branch of the river, is visible.

In colonial times a smaller branch of the Mapocho left the main channel near today's Plaza Baquedano and ran south of the city center before rejoining the main channel beyond the present Plaza de la Constitución. It left a strip of land between the two channels on which central Santiago now stands. This southern channel was filled in during the 19th century, first to make way for a road called La Cañada and then the Alameda de las Delicias, later renamed Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins. Several authors argue that this branch was never a true arm of the river, but only a dry bed that flooded when the Mapocho overflowed.

The first bridge in Santiago, the "puente de Palos" (timber bridge), linked the Calle Puente with La Chimba and was used for almost 150 years, until the 17th century. A second crossing, the stone bridge known as the Puente de Cal y Canto (Calicanto), was begun in 1767 under the corregidor Luis Manuel de Zañartu and finished in the early 1780s. Because of the river's severe winter floods, Zañartu also began a program of embankments (tajamares) in 1773 to protect the city. These became a fashionable promenade for the Creole elite.

The Puente de Cal y Canto in 1860

Canalization

[edit]

In 1888, under President José Manuel Balmaceda and with revenue from the nitrate (saltpeter) boom, work began on the first canalization of the river. This first phase, roughly 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) between Vicuña Mackenna and Fermín Vivaceta avenues, was designed by University of Chile engineer Valentín Martínez and completed in 1891.[4] It contained winter floods and improved communication between the north and center of the city. Steel bridges without piers, some still in use, replaced the old wooden bridges and the Calicanto bridge, which had been destroyed by a flood in August 1888.[15] The remaining sides of the old riverbed were filled in, which later allowed construction of the Estación Mapocho and the Parque Forestal on the south bank.[16]

Until the 19th century the river marked the northern edge of Santiago. That is why the Estación Mapocho, later also the northern bus terminal, became the arrival point for trains from northern Chile, and why the Vega Central, the city's main produce market, and the Mercado Central were built beside it. Until the first half of the 20th century the channeled riverbed was a gathering place for homeless people and petty criminals.

21st century

[edit]

On April 12, 2005, the Costanera Norte toll expressway opened along the north bank and, in the channeled section, under the riverbed. The Mapocho Urbano Limpio sanitation project (see Water quality) was completed in 2010. In 2015 the Parque de la Familia opened, with an artificial calm-water arm that can be navigated, and the western riverbanks were cleared of trash, debris and brush.[17] In the 2010s work also began on riverside developments on the south bank, including the Costanera Sur and the cycling projects Cicloparque Mapocho 42K, outside the riverbed, and a riverbed promenade, inside it.

In July 2026 the Santiago Metropolitan Regional Government opened a new public tender to build a flood-tolerant riverside promenade in the channeled riverbed, a project originally known as Mapocho Pedaleable.[18] The multipurpose route would run 5.25 kilometres (3.26 mi) along the south bank of the channel between the Padre Letelier bridge in Providencia and the Parque de los Reyes in Santiago. The design includes a pedestrian path 2 to 3.3 metres (6.6 to 10.8 ft) wide, a 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) bike lane, rest areas called "beaches", six access points, lighting, security cameras, street furniture, and landscaping with native and low-water-use plants.[19] The reference budget is 22,360,588,000 Chilean pesos, with bid submissions due in September 2026 and the contract to be awarded in December.[20] Two earlier tenders for the project, in 2023 and 2024, were declared void.[21][22]

Floods

[edit]

The Mapocho is prone to large floods. Central Chile's heavy winter storms can bring up to 100 millimetres (3.9 in) of rain in a day,[23] and this is one of the main causes of the river's historic floods.[24]

Overflows have been recorded since the Spanish settlement. The earliest, in 1544, came when winter rains flooded both the Mapocho and the Maipo.[25] Rain and snow between July 20 and 22, 1574, produced floods that destroyed the bridge to the south, killed Indigenous people and swept away houses and walls in colonial Santiago.[25][13] Further floods followed in 1581 and 1597, the latter killing a considerable number of people.[25]

In the 17th century the river overflowed in 1607 and in the spring of 1609, in the "great Pentecost flood", which brought a plague of mice and many deaths and led to the first embankments on the river. More floods came in 1618, 1647, 1650, 1683 and 1686. Those of 1687 and 1688 destroyed parts of the original embankments, and another section was swept away on November 17 and 18, 1694.[26]

Chroniclers describe overflows in the 18th century in 1722, 1723, 1743–1746 and 1748. The 1748 rains flooded the dry beds of the Cañada and other streets and collapsed the original embankments, leading the colonial government to build a second set.[26] The "Avenida Grande" of June 3–16, 1783, brought the largest floods since the city's founding and left the low-lying parts of Santiago fully under water.[26] The 19th century saw further floods in 1817, 1819–1821, 1827, 1837, 1850, 1862 (when part of the embankments was torn down), 1873 and 1877, when the "Gran Aluvión" of July 14 followed an exceptionally rainy winter, as well as in 1888, 1899 and 1900.[26]

In 1912 the river overflowed twice, on May 18 and June 9, badly damaging a park that had opened in 1910.[27] Overflows were also recorded in 1926, 1934, 1941, 1953, 1982, 1986 and 1987.[28] The flood of June 25, 1982, during a major storm in Santiago, had an especially strong social impact because it was broadcast live on television.[29]

The most recent major flood came in April 2016. Heavy rain in the Andean foothills triggered landslides into the Mapocho and Maipo rivers, and about four million people in the Santiago area were left without drinking water at the height of the emergency.[30] In Santiago the swollen Mapocho flooded property, including parts of Providencia, Las Condes and central Santiago on April 17.[31] The water affected the Costanera Andrés Bello, Providencia Avenue and the center of the capital. It closed the Pedro de Valdivia Metro station and flooded building basements and the underground parking of the Costanera Center.[32] Chile's Comptroller General later found that the Ministry of Public Works bore responsibility for the flooding and its aftermath.[33][34]

Water quality

[edit]

Pollution and sanitation

[edit]

For much of the 20th century Santiago's wastewater was discharged into the Mapocho with little or no treatment. Around 1990 only about 3 percent of the city's sewage was treated, according to the national sanitation regulator, and by 2008 that share had risen to roughly 73 percent.[35] Another estimate from the time put the treated share at 68 percent, with a planned expansion expected to raise it to 81 percent.[36]

As of the late 2000s the Mapocho remained contaminated by household, agricultural and industrial sewage, and by mining waste from the several copper mines in the Andes east of Santiago, which was reportedly dumped into the river unfiltered.[37] Laws required industry and local governments to treat all their wastewater, but were loosely enforced.[38] The upper river also carries elevated levels of copper and acidity from its mineral-rich headwaters. A government environmental assessment found that dilution by tributaries such as Arrayán Creek lowers copper concentrations, though they still exceeded the standard for irrigation.[39] Untreated irrigation water had also been linked to intestinal infections from vegetables irrigated with sewage-laden water.[40]

Mapocho Urbano Limpio

[edit]

Plans to decontaminate the river[41] and make it navigable[42] led to the Mapocho Urbano Limpio ("Clean Urban Mapocho") project, launched by the government in 2008.[43] Carried out by the water utility Aguas Andinas between 2007 and 2010, it diverted the 21 sewage outfalls that emptied into the river to an underground interceptor about 28.5 kilometres (17.7 mi) long, running parallel to the river on its south bank, which carries the sewage to treatment plants including La Farfana and El Trébal in the west of the city.[40][44] The interceptor passes through nine communes.

According to Aguas Andinas, the project closed the last direct sewage discharges into the river and helped Santiago reach 100 percent coverage in drinking water, sewerage and wastewater treatment within about twelve years of the start of its program, at a total investment of more than US$1.2 billion.[40] Aguas Andinas is part of the Veolia group. Its treatment plants, which it calls "biofactories", convert waste into biogas that powers the plants, and into sludge used as agricultural fertilizer.[45]

Ecology and protection

[edit]

Following the cleanup, wildlife has returned to and around the river. In 2026 Agence France-Presse reported about 80 endemic, native and exotic species living in and around the Mapocho.[45]

In January 2022 the Ministry of the Environment published Resolution No. 1,452, recognizing the Mapocho River urban wetland in the communes of El Monte and Talagante, covering about 694.5 hectares.[46] On January 23, 2023, the Metropolitan Regional Government and 13 municipalities asked the ministry to declare the whole river an urban wetland.[47] On December 31, 2025, the ministry declared about 647 hectares along the river, from Lo Barnechea to Padre Hurtado, an urban wetland, which places it under the protection of Law No. 21,202 on urban wetlands.[48][49]

Landmarks, parks and bridges

[edit]

Bridges

[edit]

Of the river's 40 bridges in Santiago, several are notable. The Los Carros footbridge and the Purísima and Vicente Huidobro bridges are among the steel bridges declared Historical Monuments by the Council of National Monuments.[50] Others include the Centenario, Arzobispo, La Máquina and Pío Nono bridges, the Condell footbridge, and the Gran Envergadura Bridge of the Autopista Central.

Parks

[edit]

A network of urban parks lies along the river in Santiago, mainly on its south bank. From west to east, they include the Cicloparque Mapocho 42K, the Club de Golf Mapocho, Parque Mapocho Río, Parque de la Familia, Parque de los Reyes, Parque Forestal, Plaza Baquedano, Parque Balmaceda, Parque Uruguay, Parque de las Esculturas, Parque Titanium, Parque Bicentenario, Parque Monseñor Escrivá de Balaguer, Parque Las Rosas and Plaza San Enrique.

Culture and recreation

[edit]
Political propaganda on the river walls, here for the unsuccessful presidential candidate Leonardo Farkas

Since the 1970s the walls of the river channel in Santiago, seen daily by thousands of residents, have been used for political propaganda. Each year, students of the University of Chile sail a hazing regatta down the river during the celebrations that mark the start of the academic year.

Public art

[edit]
Mural from the Puerta del Sur festival

La Puerta del Sur was an annual urban art festival founded in 2016 by the Chilean painter Alejandro González, in which Chilean and foreign artists painted murals on the walls of the channeled river in Providencia. It aimed to create high-quality public art and to let the community watch and take part in the creative process.[51][52]

The Museo Arte de Luz installation, with the Torre Telefónica in the background

The Museo Arte de Luz, a Bicentennial Legacy project opened on January 18, 2011, is a free nighttime exhibition of paintings projected onto the riverbed and walls along a 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) stretch between the Patronato and Pío Nono bridges in the commune of Santiago. Organized by the Municipality of Santiago and funded by the Enersis group, it was initiated by the Chilean visual artist Catalina Rojas. Twenty-six fixed projectors on the south bank, each with four globes, display a total of 104 images of digitized paintings, changed periodically by theme. Its organizers describe it as the first river in the world illuminated with art.[53]

Sports and events

[edit]

Mapocho Río Arriba is an annual ten-kilometer cross-country run through the riverbed, held in autumn when the water level is low and running west to east between the Pío Nono and Lo Curro bridges in Providencia and Vitacura. It was first held in 2014 and is organized by the Astoreca Foundation and Aguas Andinas. Participants must be at least 18 and in good health, and rescue teams are stationed every kilometer. The event raises funds for the foundation, which operates free schools in disadvantaged communes.[54] The eighth edition, in May 2026, drew more than a thousand runners.[55]

In literature, music and art

[edit]
Riberas del Mapocho (1910), oil painting by Alberto Valenzuela Llanos[56]

The poet Pablo Neruda included an "Ode to the Winter of the Mapocho River" in his book Canto General (1950), and the musician Víctor Jara mentioned the river in the song "En el río Mapocho" (1972). In a letter dedicated to Jara, Ángel Parra referred to a "bloodied Mapocho" because the bodies of many victims of the military dictatorship were found floating in the river.[57] In Roberto Parra's cueca "La vida que yo he pasado," the opening line refers to a bridge over the Mapocho without naming it. The priest Alberto Hurtado searched under the river's bridges for children and the elderly to take to the Hogar de Cristo.

Painters have depicted the river repeatedly. Giovatto Molinelli painted a view of the embankments around 1855,[58] and Carlos Wood painted a view of the embankments with one of the descents to the riverbed in the second half of the 19th century.[59] Alberto Valenzuela Llanos painted Riberas del Mapocho in 1910,[60] and Rafael Correa painted The Canalization of the Mapocho River, now in the Museo Histórico Nacional.[61]

During the 2021 Santiago a Mil festival, the Chilean artist Iván Navarro installed on the riverbank a work titled Un río de sangre ("A river of blood"), a tribute to victims of state violence during the 2019 social unrest and to the more than 17,000 Chileans who had died of COVID-19.[62][63]

Because the river has been one of Santiago's central axes since its founding,[64][65] many of the city's landmarks rose along it: the Estación Mapocho, the Mercado Central, the Vega Central and the Mercado de Abasto Tirso de Molina, the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, the University of Chile's law school and the Instituto de Higiene, as well as the Plaza Baquedano, the Parque Forestal, the Parque de los Reyes and the Parque de la Familia.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Blog & Opinión". Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved July 14, 2012.
  2. 1 2 Chilean Government; Ministry of Education – Río Mapocho Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ↑ Astaburuaga, Francisco (1899). "Mapocho". Diccionario Geográfico de la República de Chile (in Spanish).
  4. 1 2 "#YoVivoMapocho". www.yovivomapocho.cl. Archived from the original on July 1, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  5. ↑ Álamos Undurraga, Felipe (March 17, 2005). "Puente en Autopista Central: La megaestructura que cruzará el Mapocho". El Mercurio (in Spanish). Chile. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  6. ↑ "Río Mapocho en Los Almendros". CHI2, Universidad de La Frontera (in Spanish). Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  7. ↑ "Río Mapocho". Atlas Latinoamérica (in Spanish). Centrogeo. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  8. ↑ Diagnóstico y clasificación de los cursos y cuerpos de agua según objetivos de calidad. Cuenca del río Maipo (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Santiago: Dirección General de Aguas, Ministerio de Obras Públicas. 2004.
  9. ↑ Gubin, Anastasia (January 21, 2013). "Descubren ciudad inca de Mapocho oculta bajo Santiago de Chile". Plataforma Urbana (in Spanish). Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  10. ↑ Stehberg, Rubén; Osorio, Gonzalo; Cerda, Juan Carlos (2021). "Mapocho incaico central: distritos prehispánicos de irrigación" (PDF). Publicación Ocasional del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (in Spanish). 71: 5–60. ISSN 0716-0224. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  11. ↑ "Sistemas de regadío". Memoria Chilena, Biblioteca Nacional de Chile (in Spanish). Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  12. ↑ Veronica Droppelmann A. (August 17, 2020). "Árboles como archivos climáticos: reconstruyendo 600 años de historia de sequía en Sudamérica". Ladera Sur (in Spanish). Retrieved March 12, 2023. Valdivia, poco antes de la fundación de la ciudad, arribó a un valle que sufría de hambruna producto, justamente, de la sequía
  13. 1 2 "Las lluvias del Mapocho 1574". País Vulnerable (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  14. 1 2 Urrutia, Rosa; Lanza, Carlos (1993). Catástrofes en Chile, 1541–1992 (in Spanish). Santiago: Editorial La Noria.
  15. ↑ Memoria Chilena, Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. "Canalización del río Mapocho". www.memoriachilena.gob.cl (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  16. ↑ Cofré, Patricio; Villegas, Diego (February 12, 2013). "Río Mapocho: testigo natural de los 472 años de Santiago". La Tercera (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  17. ↑ Intendencia Región Metropolitana (January 27, 2015). "Intendente Metropolitano y Seremi MOP RM supervisan labores de limpieza en ribera del río Mapocho". www.intendenciametropolitana.gov.cl (in Spanish). Archived from the original on August 15, 2018. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  18. ↑ Saavedra, Javiera (July 6, 2026). "Inicia proceso de licitación para el proyecto de construcción del Paseo Urbano Fluvial Río Mapocho". Gobierno de Santiago (in Spanish). Retrieved July 11, 2026.
  19. ↑ Pareja, Paula (July 8, 2026). ""Esta obra recupera un espacio que estuvo abandonado por años": comienza licitación para el Paseo Fluvial del río Mapocho". La Tercera (in Spanish). Retrieved July 11, 2026.
  20. ↑ "Habilitación paseo urbanofluvial lecho río Mapocho". Mercado Público (in Spanish). July 3, 2026. Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  21. ↑ "Habilitación paseo urbano fluvial Río Mapocho". Mercado Público (in Spanish). October 23, 2023. Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  22. ↑ "Construcción Paseo Fluvial lecho Río Mapocho". Mercado Público (in Spanish). June 10, 2024. Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  23. ↑ Quintanilla Pérez, V. (May 23, 2013). "Cartography of disaster areas in andean catchment of central Chile. Determination of risk sectors". Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica. 18 (0): 47–56. doi:10.18172/cig.1002. ISSN 1697-9540. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  24. ↑ Gironás, Jorge; Sandoval, Jorge (2017). Riesgo de origen hidrometeorológico en la ciudad de Santiago (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2019. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  25. 1 2 3 "Siglo XVI en Santiago: Años de intensas lluvias e inundaciones". webcache.googleusercontent.com (in Spanish). Departamento de Gestión del Riesgo en Emergencias y Desastres, Ministerio de Salud (Chile). Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Ortlieb, Luc (1994). "Las mayores precipitaciones historicas en Chile central y la cronologia de eventos ENOS en los siglos XVI-XIX". Revista Chilena de Historia Natural (in Spanish). 67: 463–485. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  27. ↑ Lanza, Carlos (2012). Catástrofes de Chile: álbum de prensa de antaño (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile: RIL editores. ISBN 9789562848688. OCLC 847598785. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  28. ↑ Larraín Navarro, Patricio. "Las inundaciones en la ciudad de Santiago: Un ensayo de geografía aplicada". Revista de Historia y Geografía de la Universidad Católica Silva Henríquez (in Spanish). 7. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  29. ↑ "Los estragos que dejó en Santiago el temporal de 1982". www.tvn.cl (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  30. ↑ "Chile floods: 4 million people without water as world's largest copper mine suspends operations". ABC News. April 18, 2016. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  31. ↑ "Santiago, Chile: Huge floods". The Week. April 29, 2016.
  32. ↑ Diario UChile (April 17, 2016). "Intensa lluvia provoca desborde del río Mapocho y deja cientos de damnificados". Diario UChile (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  33. ↑ Tele 13 (October 29, 2016). "Desborde Río Mapocho: Contraloría apunta al MOP como el principal responsable de las inundaciones". Tele 13 (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  34. ↑ Miranda, Marjory; Carreño, Camilo (October 28, 2016). "Contraloría cuestionó rol del MOP por desborde del Mapocho". La Tercera (in Spanish). Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  35. ↑ "La limpieza del río Mapocho abrirá las puertas a nuevos proyectos en Santiago". Hosteltur (in Spanish). August 2, 2008. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  36. ↑ Revista Ecoamérica. "Cruzada ambiental por el Mapocho limpio" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on February 16, 2012. Retrieved February 11, 2008. permitirá pasar del 68 al 81% en el tratamiento de las aguas servidas
  37. ↑ El Mercurio. "Región Metropolitana saneará el 100% de aguas servidas al 2020" (in Spanish). Fundación Terram. Retrieved February 11, 2008.
  38. ↑ Comisión Regional Metropolitana del Medio Ambiente. "Agua, Recurso Escaso y Vital" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 28, 2008. Retrieved November 2, 2008. se calcula que sólo el 77% de las industrias del país cumple con la norma de RILES existente
  39. ↑ Resumen diagnóstico ambiental (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (Chile). Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  40. 1 2 3 "Conmemoramos 10 años del Mapocho Urbano Limpio: un hito que cambió la cara de Santiago". Aguas Andinas (in Spanish). Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  41. ↑ "Mapocho urbano limpio: El río soñado" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 25, 2008. Retrieved November 2, 2008. Proyecto Mapocho Urbano Limpio
  42. ↑ Fundación Futuro. "Proyecto Mapocho" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on September 27, 2018. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
  43. ↑ El Mostrador (January 1, 2008). "Presidenta Bachelet lanza proyecto "Mapocho Urbano Limpio"". El Mostrador (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  44. ↑ "Cómo Santiago recuperó su río". Infraestructura Pública (in Spanish). January 8, 2026. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  45. 1 2 "Chile's once-dirty Mapocho river enjoys new lease on life". Malay Mail. Agence France-Presse. May 26, 2026. Retrieved September 23, 2026.
  46. ↑ DOE, Equipo Actualidad Jurídica (January 13, 2022). "Ministerio del Medio Ambiente reconoce humedal urbano río Mapocho en comunas El Monte y Talagante". País Circular (in Spanish). Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  47. ↑ Acuna, Pablo (January 23, 2023). "Alcaldes y alcaldesas de la RM junto al gobernador Claudio Orrego solicitan declarar el Río Mapocho como humedal urbano". Gobierno de Santiago (in Spanish). Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  48. ↑ "Declaran Humedal Urbano a toda la extensión del Río Mapocho, desde Lo Barnechea hasta Padre Hurtado en la RM". Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (Chile) (in Spanish). January 12, 2026. Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  49. ↑ Porras, Diana (January 9, 2026). "Desde Lo Barnechea hasta Padre Hurtado en la RM: declaran Humedal Urbano a toda la extensión del Río Mapocho". Diario y Radio Universidad Chile (in Spanish). Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  50. ↑ Consejo de Monumentos Nacionales de Chile. "Cuatro puentes metálicos sobre el río Mapocho". www.monumentos.gob.cl (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  51. ↑ Festival Puerta del Sur. "Nosotros" (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  52. ↑ Ganora, Emmanuel (October 12, 2018). "El muralismo sigue haciendo de las suyas en el Río Mapocho". Culto (La Tercera) (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  53. ↑ Museo Arte de Luz. "presentación". Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  54. ↑ La Segunda online (April 20, 2015). "Vuelve la carrera de running que recorre el río Mapocho". La Segunda (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  55. ↑ "Más de mil personas corrieron por el río Mapocho en corrida por sus 16 años de saneamiento". El Mostrador (in Spanish). May 18, 2026. Retrieved July 10, 2026.
  56. ↑ "ALBERTO VALENZUELA LLANOS / RIBERAS DEL MAPOCHO". Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (in Spanish). Retrieved August 6, 2019.
  57. ↑ Sucre Serrano, Hermes. "Los olvidados de río Mapocho". Prensa.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. Retrieved May 14, 2011.
  58. ↑ Artistas Visuales Chilenos, AVCh, MNBA. "Giovatto Molinelli". www.artistasvisualeschilenos.cl (in Spanish). Retrieved December 7, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ↑ Katz, Carolina; Reid, Paul; Andrade, Martín (August 2009). "Tres visiones sobre el río Mapocho". ARQ (Santiago) (72): 56–59. doi:10.4067/S0717-69962009000200011. ISSN 0717-6996. Retrieved December 7, 2020.
  60. ↑ Artistas Visuales Chilenos, AVCh, MNBA. "Alberto Valenzuela Llanos". www.artistasvisualeschilenos.cl (in Spanish). Retrieved December 7, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ↑ @FcoDarmendral (October 13, 2018). "La canalización del Río Mapocho. Óleo del pintor nacional Rafael Correa expuesto en el @mhnchile" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
  62. ↑ El Periodista (January 12, 2021). "Instalación de Iván Navarro en el río Mapocho marca la segunda semana de Santiago a Mil". El Periodista (in Spanish). Retrieved January 14, 2021.
  63. ↑ de la Sotta, Romina (December 25, 2020). "Iván Navarro, artista: "El río Mapocho es una metáfora de la ciudad, y esta siempre ha sufrido desastres"". La Tercera (in Spanish). Retrieved January 14, 2021.
  64. ↑ Castillo Fernández, Simón (2018). "Naturaleza, ciudad y sectores populares: el río Mapocho en Santiago de Chile (1880-1920)". Boletín Americanista (in European Spanish). 0 (77): 21–42. ISSN 2014-993X. Retrieved December 7, 2020.
  65. ↑ Castillo, Simón (August 2009). "19th Century Urban Mapocho". ARQ (Santiago) (72): 46–49. doi:10.4067/S0717-69962009000200009. ISSN 0717-6996. Retrieved December 7, 2020.

Further reading

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