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Draft:Khanate of Balkh

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Khanate of Balkh
Balx xonligi / Балх хонлиги / بلخ خانلغی
1526–1850
CapitalBalkh
Official languagesUzbek
Religion
Islam
GovernmentMonarchy (Khanate)
Khan 
• 1526–1544
Kistin Qara Sultan (first)
• ?–1850
Rustesh Khan (last)
Historical eraEarly modern period / Modern era
• Established
July 2 1526
• Annexed by Afghanistan
1850
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Khanate of Bukhara
Durrani Empire
Emirate of Afghanistan

The Khanate of Balkh was the largest administrative unit of the Khanate of Bukhara (1526–1702), where, starting from 1590, the governor was the heir to the Bukhara ruler, who received the title of khan; later, it was an Uzbek state (1702–1850) that existed in Southern Turkestan, which was subsequently annexed to the Emirate of Afghanistan. The last khan was Rustesh Khan.

The Khanate of Balkh reached its greatest development under the Janid dynasty (Astrakhanids), especially during the reigns of Nadir Muhammad Khan and Subhan Quli Khan.

The capital of the Khanate of Balkh was the city of the same name — Balkh, which served as the second political center during the Janid rule.

Geography

[edit]

The Khanate of Balkh occupied a vast territory extending from north to south between the Hissar Beklik and the Hindu Kush mountains, and from west to east between the Murghab River and Badakhshan[1].

The territory of the Khanate of Balkh has been insufficiently studied by archaeologists, and information in surviving written sources is very scarce. The only written source whose data allows localizing the main cities and large settlements of Balkh, as well as defining its territory and borders, is the work of Mahmud ibn Wali — "Bahr al-Asrar". It states that the Khanate of Balkh occupied a vast territory, roughly corresponding to the areas of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Kushan Empire[2].

In the 17th century, the Khanate of Balkh consisted of such major vilayets as Bamyan, Tokharistan with Badakhshan, Chaganiyan, Khutttal, and the Balkh Vilayet proper[2].

The Balkh Vilayet included the following major cities: Balkh, Akcha, Sheberghan, Andkhoy, Maymana, Faryab, Chechektu, Katnam, Parward, and Darzab[3].

History

[edit]

The semi-independent Balkh appanage of the Shaybanids and Janids, which was in nominal dependence on the Khanate of Bukhara, was known in its time as the Khanate of Balkh, Kingdom of Balkh, and State of Balkh, leaving a noticeable mark on the history of not only Central Asia, but also adjacent Eastern countries — Iran, Afghanistan, and India[1].

Balkh Vilayet at the beginning of the 16th century

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Blue Mosque, built by the Timurid Sultan Husayn Bayqara

At the beginning of the 16th century, Balkh was part of Timurid Khorasan, and the governor of Balkh was a prince of the Timurid dynasty — Badi' al-Zaman Mirza (1497–1506). After an unsuccessful attempt to create a coalition against the nomadic Uzbeks, he was forced to withdraw under the pretext of gathering troops elsewhere, entrusting the defense of the city to one of his sons, with the most loyal emirs assigned as advisors[4].

Portrait of Muhammad Shaybani
Kamal ud-Din Behzad, 16th century

In the autumn of 1503, Shaybani Khan led a three-month siege of Balkh, which ended in failure. The city was finally conquered by Shaybani Khan after his second attempt and a four-month siege[5]. Balkh and its adjacent lands were annexed to the Shaybanid state in 1506[4]. The Uzbek khan granted the Balkh vilayet to his young son Khurramshah Sultan[6]. However, it was not centralized from the outset and was divided into appanages[7].

Possessions of the Khanate of Bukhara and the Safavid Empire

Following the defeat of the Uzbek forces by Safavid Iran at the Battle of Marv, Safavid rule was temporarily established in Balkh starting in 1511. However, their local governor died in 1513 during the Battle of Ghajdivan, where the Qizilbash suffered a defeat at the hands of Shaybanid troops led by Ubaydullah Khan[8][6].

Under the Safavids, Bayram Khan Karmanlu (1511–1513), an associate and comrade-in-arms of Safavid Shah Ismail I, was briefly appointed military governor of the vast border region adjacent to Transoxiana, including the cities of Balkh, Farab, Maymana, Sheberghan, Taleqan, and Andkhoy[9]. During this period, the inhabitants of Balkh, Sheberghan, and Andkhoy were resettled to the right bank of the Amu Darya by Shaybani Khan's cousin — Janibek Sultan[10].

In May 1516, the Balkh Vilayet was captured by the Timurid Muhammad Zaman, son of Badi' al-Zaman Mirza, and Orda-Sheikh, who managed to assemble large forces in Gharjistan from the nomadic tribes of the Nikudari Hazaras. After two and a half months, Muhammad Zaman's rule was interrupted due to disagreements with Emir Orda-Sheikh over the division of power in the Balkh Vilayet. The dispute that erupted on this basis led to an armed clash, and Muhammad Zaman was expelled from Balkh[6].

After several attempts to settle matters peacefully and following several skirmishes, Muhammad Zaman and Orda-Sheikh managed to meet and conclude a peace agreement on March 25, 1517. However, on the very same day, Orda-Sheikh was accused of treason by Muhammad Zaman. By order of the latter, Orda-Sheikh was beheaded and his retinue was killed. Orda-Sheikh's brother, Qavam-beg, who remained in Balkh, learned of what had happened and handed over the keys of the city to Zafar-beg, head of the army of Babur, who had just arrived from Kabul with an army. Due to these circumstances, Muhammad Zaman was forced to withdraw to another location, from where he sent a messenger to Babur with a message of submission. A few days later, Babur set out for Balkh from Kabul with a four-thousand-strong detachment and sent a message to Muhammad Zaman. Babur wrote that the march on Balkh was related to state interests and promised to return Balkh and its subject lands to Muhammad Zaman immediately after their subjection. Muhammad Zaman sent his response to Babur, stating that he could not present himself at his majesty's feet at present, but would do so as soon as Babur restored Balkh to him and returned to Kabul. After an unsuccessful attempt to form an alliance with Imin-beg, a cousin of Orda-Sheikh, Muhammad Zaman retreated to Gharjistan, wandered there and in other mountainous regions for a long time, and made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to seize Balkh. He was subsequently defeated in Sheberghan by the combined forces of Imin-beg and Ibrahim Chapuk, was taken prisoner, and was sent to Kabul. Babur, as witnessed by Khwandamir, pardoned all his transgressions, granted him a place among his close associates, and after two months granted him Balkh. Muhammad Zaman ruled here until September 1523, ingratiating himself alternately with Babur and Shah Ismail I[11].

Very little is known about the events that took place in Balkh and its subject areas between 1523 and 1525. As is clear from the reports of Mahmud ibn Wali, in November 1523, during the campaign of the Shaybanid sultans Suyunchkhoja Khan, Ubaydullah Khan, Janibek Sultan, and others against Herat, Balkh was ruled by a certain qadi named Salih, who welcomed the Uzbeks with hospitality. According to B. A. Ahmedov's assumptions, Muhammad Zaman was considered ruler nominally, while in practice qadi Salih governed the city on behalf of Babur[12].

Establishment of the Khanate of Balkh within the Bukhara Khanate

[edit]

The Khanate of Balkh was founded on July 2, 1526, by the Shaybanid Kistin Qara Sultan (1526–1544). From this time on, Balkh firmly established itself within the Shaybanid state, and later under the Janids who succeeded them. With the subsequent addition of Tokharistan, Badakhshan, the mountainous regions of present-day Central Afghanistan, as well as the Kashkadarya Valley and Kulob, it formed a distinct appanage[13].

In 1526, the nomadic Uzbeks managed to establish their authority over all coastal Amu Darya districts of modern Afghan Turkestan, from the Murghab River in the west to the mouth of the Kokcha River in the east, while in the south, the borders of Kistin Qara Sultan's possessions extended roughly along the middle reaches of the Surkhab River. The regions of Kunduz and Taloqan were still dependent on Babur at that time, and their administration, like that of Kandahar and Badakhshan, was carried out at the cost of vast financial resources and efforts[14]. Regarding this, Babur wrote the following:

...there was no significant benefit from these provinces. On the contrary, some of the named lands [Badakhshan, Kunduz, Kabul, and Kandahar] lay near the enemies, and it was necessary to render them significant assistance.[15]

The first years of Kistin Qara Sultan's reign were spent in struggle against Humayun, who was then in Babur's Kabul domain, and Sulaiman Shah, the ruler of Badakhshan. Humayun's border beys frequently raided the districts of Balkh, which often led to armed clashes. In March 1529, Humayun invaded the right bank of the Amu Darya. Joining forces with Tursun Muhammad Sultan, the ruler of Termez, they captured Qubaddiyan, which could have led to a war between the Shaybanid and Mughal states[16].

Sulaiman Shah caused particularly serious concern to Balkh. In mid-August 1536, he invaded the Balkh appanage, and on September 5 of the same year, he captured Balkh itself. Kistin Qara Sultan was pushed back to the right bank of the Amu Darya. However, Sulaiman Shah could not hold out for long, and within two to three months he was driven out by Kistin Qara Sultan, who was assisted in this matter by Ubaydullah Khan. Having learned a hard lesson, Kistin Qara Sultan set about restoring the city fortifications of Balkh. In 1539–1540, he rebuilt the inner citadel of the city. Soon, Kistin Qara Sultan's position strengthened to such an extent that in the summer of 1541, taking advantage of political troubles that arose in Transoxiana following the death of Bukhara Khan Ubaydullah Khan (March 17, 1540), he even attempted to seize Bukhara from Burhan Sultan. However, the matter ended peacefully, and after marrying Moghul Khanum, Kistin Qara Sultan returned to his appanage[16].

As sources indicate, unrest broke out among the population and the army in Balkh during the reign of Kistin Qara Sultan in 1543–1544[16].

After Kistin Qara Sultan's death (October 8, 1544), power in the Balkh appanage passed to his minor son and successor Qylych Qara Sultan, who ruled for about two years. Under him, Sulaiman Shah again captured Balkh on February 14, 1545, but was soon driven out[17].

On April 13, 1546, Pir Muhammad Khan came to power in Balkh (1546–1567). Under his rule, the strengthened Shaybanid Khanate of Balkh played a major role in the political life of Transoxiana and Badakhshan. Furthermore, the Khanate of Balkh gained complete independence during his reign. The Bukhara Khan Abdul-Aziz Khan (1540–1550), attempting to put an end to its independence, began preparing a large campaign against Balkh. However, the planned campaign was not carried out, and soon Abdul-Aziz Khan himself passed away (May 16, 1550). The weak-willed Muhammad Yar Sultan, grandson of Shaybani Khan, was placed on the throne in Bukhara. During these same days, Pir Muhammad Khan, under the pretext of expressing condolences on the passing of Abdul-Aziz Khan, arrived in Bukhara and through various maneuvers seized supreme power on August 18, 1550[18].

Most of the nobility and heads of the Muslim clergy did not support Pir Muhammad Khan. Nor did he manage to secure the support of the all-powerful Khwaja Muhammad Islam. Pir Muhammad Khan subsequently attempted to place his own candidate on the Bukhara throne — Umargazi Sultan, better known as Uzbek Khan, son of the Shaybanid Rustam Sultan. When prominent emirs petitioned Khwaja Muhammad Islam on behalf of Uzbek Khan, citing the Yassa of Genghis Khan, the Khwaja replied: "Dervishes do not obey the laws of Genghis Khan, but submit only to the will of Allah." When the emirs reminded the ishan that Pir Muhammad Khan exalted Uzbek Khan because he was older, decisive, and brave, Khwaja Muhammad Islam strictly answered: "If Pir Muhammad Khan exalts Uzbek Sultan, then Allah exalts Abdullah Khan"[18].

Pir Muhammad Khan remained in Bukhara as supreme ruler for about one year, but receiving no help or support from the emirs and Ishan Khwaja Muhammad Islam, he was forced to leave Bukhara in June–July 1551, handing power back to Muhammad Yar Sultan, who had previously been recalled from Samarkand[19].

During the years of severe internecine strife in Transoxiana (1551–1556), when the Shaybanid sultans fought fiercely among themselves for supreme power, Pir Muhammad Khan strongly supported his close relatives — the sons and grandsons of Janibek Sultan, who ruled individual regions of Transoxiana. Among them, the young Abdullah Khan and Uzbek Khan were the most active and persistent. Pir Muhammad Khan continued to give preference to the latter. When a bloody battle broke out near Kasan between Abdullah Khan II and Burhan Sultan, Pir Muhammad Khan arrived at the head of the Balkh army at a moment when Abdullah Khan II held the upper hand. Burhan Sultan suffered a defeat and retreated toward Bukhara, while Abdullah Khan II and Pir Muhammad Khan joined forces and marched on Kesh, which was still besieged by another Shaybanid, Nawruz Ahmad Khan. Upon learning of this, Nawruz Ahmad Khan lifted the siege and returned to his domain. Pir Muhammad Khan then returned to Balkh[20].

In 1554, Nawruz Ahmad Khan again invaded Transoxiana and seized the regions of Miankal, Nesef, and Kesh from the descendants of Janibek Sultan. They were defeated in a fierce battle near the city of Qarshi. On December 10, 1554, Rustam Khan was killed. Abdullah Khan II, Uzbek Khan, Khosrow Sultan, Dustim Sultan, and Ibadullah Sultan fled to Balkh to Pir Muhammad Khan, who sent them to Andkhoy and Sheberghan[20].

According to a Balkh historian, Pir Muhammad Khan decided to avenge his nephews' defeat near Qarshi on Nawruz Ahmad Khan and his descendants and marched into Transoxiana, but was defeated in a battle fought on April 15, 1555, in the location of Farrakhin in Miankal[21].

Portrait of Abdullah Khan II
Kamal ud-Din Behzad, 16th century

Until the spring of the following year, 1556, Abdullah Khan II stayed in Chechektu and Maymana, assigned to him by Pir Muhammad Khan. According to Hafiz-i Tanish Bukhari, Pir Muhammad Khan showed attention to his nephew, assisting him with weapons and everything necessary[22].

On the evening of September 24, 1556, Nawruz Ahmad Khan passed away. Taking advantage of this, Abdullah Khan II, with the assistance of Pir Muhammad Khan, the Bukhara emirs, and the all-powerful Juybari khwajas, finally gained full control of Bukhara. On the second Friday, June 13, 1557, the khutbah was read in the name of Pir Muhammad Khan in the Congregational Mosque of Bukhara. He remained the supreme khan of all Uzbeks until April 17–18, 1561. Although the khutbah was read and coins were struck in Pir Muhammad Khan's name, his rule was purely formal. Due to the activation of Sulaiman Shah, ruler of Badakhshan, on the borders of the Balkh domain, as well as internal unrest (the rebellion of his son Din Muhammad Sultan and Emir Khudaydad in Sheberghan), he could not leave Balkh and relocate to Bukhara; thus, Abdullah Khan II had actually governed here since 1557[22].

In July–August 1560, Pir Muhammad Khan had to fight Sulaiman Shah, who had invaded Balkh territory with a massive army, according to the Balkh historian. Pir Muhammad Khan dispatched a messenger to Bukhara with a request. Abdullah Khan II immediately set out to assist his uncle. Meanwhile, Sulaiman Shah, having thoroughly plundered the surrounding areas of Balkh, firmly entrenched himself in Sar-e Pol, Sheberghan[23].

Elated by the victory over Sulaiman Shah, Pir Muhammad decided to capture such important cities of Tokharistan as Kunduz and Taloqan, and set out there with an army on September 5, 1560. Sources are silent on how the campaign ended. According to Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Sulaiman Shah could not hold out in Badakhshan and appeared in Agra before Akbar the Great. These regions were then re-annexed to Balkh[23].

In 1561, a final break occurred between Pir Muhammad Khan and Abdullah Khan II. According to chroniclers, the cause was Pir Muhammad Khan's desire to take Bukhara from his nephew in exchange for Balkh. In the spring of 1561, negotiations began between them in Sheberghan on this matter. Abdullah Khan II, remembering that Balkh was close to Khorasan and Iran — which he dreamed of conquering — agreed to his uncle's proposal. The parties signed a corresponding document and appointed their representatives to transfer authority. However, the exchange never took place. According to Hafiz-i Tanish Bukhari, the following circumstances prevented it: Din Muhammad Sultan, son of Pir Muhammad Khan, who had raised a rebellion against his father, opposed the deal, as did Khwaja Muhammad Islam, who said to Qul Baba Kökeltash, who had arrived with this news in Juybar: "Our Khan, without consulting us, has thought of swapping Bukhara for Balkh. If he thinks Bukhara is under his authority without anyone's help and support, let him do as he pleases, let him give it to whomever he wants, [if we live] we shall see what comes of this scheme!" Thus, the deal was not destined to materialize. In B. A. Ahmedov's opinion, this last circumstance played the decisive role. As for Din Muhammad Sultan's rebellion, they could have easily dealt with it, as Pir Muhammad Khan later did after Abdullah Khan II departed for Transoxiana[24].

Immediately upon returning to Bukhara in April–May 1561, Abdullah Khan II summoned his father Iskandar Khan from Kermine, and he was proclaimed Khan of Bukhara, while Pir Muhammad Khan's name "was erased from the khutbah"[24]. Regarding events in Balkh in subsequent years, at least until the death of Pir Muhammad Khan (March 12, 1567), there is no information in the sources. In short, Pir Muhammad Khan, like Kistin Qara Sultan, conducted an active policy, both internal and external. Under him, the Balkh appanage expanded significantly at the expense of Abivard, the Marv region, and Termez, where his sons and grandsons were placed at the head: Payanda Muhammad Sultan (in Marv), Padshah Muhammad Sultan (in Termez), and Abu'l-Muhammad (in Abivard). The southern borders of Gurzivan and Gharjistan were also strengthened, where Bayram Oglan and Haqnazark Oglan were appointed[25].

During the final years of the reign of his son Din Muhammad Khan, Kunduz, Baghlan, Taloqan, and other cities of Tokharistan were again seized by Sulaiman Shah and his grandson Khosrow Mirza. Din Muhammad Khan ruled Balkh for about six years (March 1567 – February 1573) and preserved the independence of his domain through great effort. Significant assistance and support in this was rendered to him by the Hissar sultans and Uzbek Khan, who was then at enmity with Abdullah Khan II. At the same time, Din Muhammad Khan occasionally maneuvered, expressing verbal obedience to the Bukhara government and sending minor military forces to Abdullah Khan II when the latter organized military campaigns against his rivals or against the Qizilbash[26].

Abdullah Khan II, despite being occupied with the struggle to unify Transoxiana, harbored a plan to eliminate the independence of Balkh. Thus, in the autumn of 1567, he marched on Merv to subject it. Marv was besieged, and bloody battles continued for several days. However, the Bukhara troops failed to take it, even after the destruction of the Sultan-Bend dam on the Murghab River by order of the khan[26].

In 1570, Abdullah Khan II launched a campaign against Andkhoy and Sheberghan, in which Uzbek Khan also participated. First, the fortress of Andkhoy was besieged. Its ruler Shah-Muhammad Sultan and his ataliq Jandawlat-bi Nayman offered stubborn resistance. However, they could not withstand the superior forces of the enemy and, agreeing with the nobility, surrendered the fortress to Uzbek Khan. The latter did not allow Abdullah Khan II into the city, who was forced to move further to Sheberghan. Uzbek Khan, not wishing to completely ruin relations with him, left his representative in Andkhoy and caught up with Abdullah Khan II in the Sheberghan village of Khwaja Dukka. Abdullah Khan II met him coldly; fearing for his life, Uzbek Khan fled toward Balkh during the night and joined forces with Din Muhammad Khan. Sheberghan surrendered to Abdullah Khan II without resistance, although Padshah Muhammad Sultan and his retinue, relying on the strength of the fortress fortifications, decided to resist. After taking Sheberghan, the Bukhara troops headed for Balkh. But matters did not come to a battle, and both sides concluded peace. Heads of the Balkh clergy persuaded Abdullah Khan II to do this: Mawlana Muhammad Amin Zahid and Sayyid Mirim-Shah[27].

The following representatives of the Shaybanid dynasty were appointed as sultan or governor of the Balkh appanage of the Bukhara Khanate: Khurramshah Sultan (1506–1511), Kistin Qara Sultan (1526–1544), Qylych Qara Sultan (1544–1545), Pir Muhammad Khan (1546–1566), Din Muhammad Sultan (1566–1573), and Abdul-Mumin Khan (1582–1590)[28][29].

Establishment of the Khanate of Balkh for the heir of the Bukhara Khan

[edit]

In 1590, Abdul-Mumin Khan was declared heir to his father — Abdullah Khan II — for the post of Khan of the Bukhara Khanate, and was simultaneously granted the honorary title of Khan. Toward the end of Abdullah Khan II's reign, Abdul-Mumin Khan sought independence from his father, leading to an armed conflict between them; during his short reign, Abdul-Mumin Khan even managed to mint coins in his own name[28][29].

After the fall of Shaybanid power in 1599, an unstable political situation emerged in Transoxiana. Shah Abbas I of Safavid Iran decided to take advantage of this. In Balkh, with the Shah's assistance, his nominee, the Shaybanid Muhammad Ibrahim, briefly became ruler[30]. In April 1602, he led troops to conquer regions south of the Amu Darya that belonged to the Bukhara Khanate. The Shah failed to crush the Janid forces and capture Balkh. The Battle of Balkh in June ended with the retreat of the Safavid forces[31].

During the reign of the Janids, two political centers were established in the territory of the Bukhara Khanate: Bukhara and Balkh. Usually, the governor of the Bukhara Khan in the Balkh province was his heir, who received the title of khan[32]. Often the heir was too young, and in such cases, an official was assigned to him as regent, receiving the highest state title of Ataliq[33][34].

In the early 18th century, the Balkh ataliqs seized all power in the province and turned into restless feudal lords with whom the Khan of Bukhara had to reckon seriously, making various compromises and concessions. "Tarikh-i Muqim-Khani" provides numerous examples of this. In the early 18th century, administratively, the Balkh province controlled not only the regions of present-day Afghan Turkestan, from the borders of the Herat province to Badakhshan, but also districts on the right bank of the Amu Darya up to Hisar inclusive[34].

The Janids paid special attention to the Balkh province as the largest administrative, military, and commercial center, especially since the Balkh district bordered the semi-independent Khanate of Badakhshan to the east and the Mughal Empire to the south[34].

In 1645, Balkh was captured by the Padishah of the Mughal Empire — Shah Jahan — and remained under his control in 1645–1647[35]. Here the Mughals behaved as if in a conquered country. The population began to flee, crossing the Amu Darya in entire families to move into Transoxiana. Only in 1647 were the conquerors driven from this territory by the Bukhara Khan Abdul-Aziz Khan (1645–1681)[36].

Cities subject to Subhan Quli Khan of Balkh

Starting in the 17th century, the khanate maintained direct trade and political ties with Russia, India, and Iran. In December 1676, the Balkh Khan Subhan Quli Khan sent a letter to Tsar Feodor III of Russia. This document outlines the districts belonging to the khanate. Subhan Quli Khan (1681–1702) was elected Khan in Bukhara in 1681. The final years of his reign were marked by general devastation. Fierce fighting took place on the territory of Balkh between individual Uzbek tribes, and the Balkh region was engulfed in complete anarchy.

The following representatives of the Shaybanid and Janid dynasties were appointed as governors or ruled Balkh independently with the title of Khan: Abdul-Mumin Khan (1590–1598), Abd al-Amin Khan (1598), Muhammad Ibrahim (1598–1602), Vali Muhammad Khan (1602–1605), Nadir Muhammad Khan (1612–1642 and 1645–1651), Subhan Quli Khan (1651–1680), Iskandar Khan ibn Subhan Quli (1680–1683), Abu'l-Mansur Khan ibn Subhan Quli (1683), Siddiq Muhammad Khan ibn Subhan Quli (1683–1687), Abu'l-Muzaffar Muhammad Muqim Khan ibn Iskandar (1687–1707), great-grandson of Vali Muhammad — Abdullah Khan (1711–1712), Sanjar Khan ibn Abdullah (1712–1717), and Muhammad Khan (1717–1720)[37][38].

Formation of an independent Khanate of Balkh

[edit]

After the death of Subhan Quli Khan in 1702, his grandson Muhammad Muqim Khan proclaimed himself an independent khan, and neither during Muhammad Muqim Khan's lifetime nor after his death were the Janids of Bukhara able to subjugate Balkh[39]. The Balkh domain permanently broke away from the Khanate of Bukhara[40].

In 1736–1737, Balkh was captured by Nader Shah, and in 1747, after the Shah's death, it became independent once again, along with other small Uzbek khanates of Southern Turkestan[41][42].

In 1742 and 1745, massive uprisings took place in Balkh against the Shah's rule, which were brutally suppressed by Nader Shah's troops[43].

Struggle of Afghan and Bukhara rulers for dominance in the Khanate of Balkh

[edit]
Possessions of the Emirate of Bukhara and the Emirate of Afghanistan, 1850–1899
Map of the Durrani Empire in 1761

The Durrani Empire during the era of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772) was the largest state in the Middle East. In 1750–1752, Ahmad Shah Durrani subjugated small Uzbek khanates north of the Hindu Kush: Balkh, Sheberghan, Andkhoy, Kunduz, and Maymana. In most of them, rulers from local dynasties were left on vassal terms, but an Afghan governor was dispatched to Balkh. Ahmad Shah's authority over the Uzbek khanates on the left bank of the Amu Darya was not firm, as seen in particular by the fact that a strong Afghan army had to be sent to these areas as early as 1755[44].

By the end of the 18th century, the foreign political situation had changed significantly compared to Ahmad Shah's reign. The neighbors of the Durrani state had grown stronger. The Emirate of Bukhara, under its first Emir, Shah Murad (1785–1800), attained relatively stable political power and strengthened economically and militarily[45].

In 1790, the Afghan Shah Timur Shah Durrani (1772–1793) organized a campaign against Balkh[46]. In 1790–1791, the Bukhara Emir Shah Murad waged a war against Timur Shah Durrani over former Bukhara possessions on the left bank of the Amu Darya. In the Uzbek khanates of the left bank of the Amu Darya, the Afghan Shah's authority was reduced to practically nothing. Not a single rupee entered their treasury from these lands. During his reign, Timur Shah Durrani could not find anyone willing to serve as governor there, which became a subject of mockery among the Shah's opponents[47]. A major campaign undertaken to the north brought him no new territorial gains and failed to strengthen his actual authority on the left bank of the Amu Darya, though formally, according to the peace treaty concluded with the Bukhara Emir Shah Murad, the Amu Darya River was again recognized as the border between the Durrani state and the Emirate of Bukhara[48][45].

In the early 19th century, the authority of the Afghan governor in Balkh was fictitious. The Khanate of Balkh and other small Uzbek khanates of Southern Turkestan broke away from Afghan rule and became fully independent[49][47].

The British made an unsuccessful attempt to advance north of the Hindu Kush through Bamyan, where they met strong resistance from the Uzbeks and Tajiks of the left bank of the Amu Darya[45].

Conquest of the Khanate of Balkh by Afghanistan

[edit]
Dost Mohammad Khan with his youngest son

Having lost hope of successful actions to the east and southeast, Dost Mohammad Khan switched to an active policy in the north. He dispatched a large military expedition there with the goal of conquering "Lesser Turkestan"[44].

In 1850, with full British support, Dost Mohammad Khan subjugated Balkh[50]. Thus began the conquest of the left bank of the Amu Darya by the armies of Afghan emirs, which lasted for many years. The conquest was facilitated by feudal fragmentation and mutual hostility among the rulers of small Uzbek khanates on the left bank of the Amu Darya, but the local population offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors. Since then, the small Uzbek khanates located on the left bank of the Amu Darya were captured one after another by the emir's troops[51]. The main strongholds of the Afghan emirs' dominance in the north for a long time were garrisons in Balkh, Mazar-i-Sharif, Akcha, and Tashkurgan. Internal administration remained in the hands of local Uzbek and Tajik feudal lords. In many cases, their recognition of the supreme authority of the Afghan emirs was reduced to vassal dependence. Be that as it may, in the 1850s, a new province — named Afghan Turkestan — was included in Dost Mohammad Khan's domains, and he appointed his eldest son Muhammad Afzal Khan as its governor[50][52].

Portrait of Emir of Bukhara Nasrullah Khan

Dost Mohammad's offensive policy in the north led to conflicts with the Emirate of Bukhara, on which the rulers of the left-bank khanates had previously been dependent as vassals[53]. The first official recognition of the Kabul Emir's authority over the city of Balkh was made by Britain, which was stipulated in the second Treaty of Peshawar[54].

In 1860, in the final days of his reign, the Bukhara Emir Nasrullah Khan marched toward Southern Turkestan and even crossed the Amu Darya with his troops near the Kerki Beklik, but then unexpectedly turned back and returned to Bukhara[55][56]. As reported by the Russian Consul General in Kashgar, N. F. Petrovsky, in a treaty concluded between the Bukhara Emir Nasrullah Khan (1827–1860) and the Afghan Emir Dost Mohammad Khan (1834–1839 / 1842–1863) on January 26, 1847, the Amu Darya River became the border between their countries[57].

In 1878, Colonel N. I. Grodekov, during his trip to Afghanistan, mentioned the Khanate of Balkh:

The Khanate of Balkh, which also included Mazar-i-Sharif, currently the main city of Afghan Turkestan, was also annexed 30 years ago. The last khan, Rustesh, was killed in Kabul by his nephew.

Population

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The main population of the Khanate of Balkh consisted of nomads, designated in narrative sources by various terms: *aymaq* and *akhsham*. For example, in "Bahr al-Asrar", which contains the political history of the Khanate of Balkh in the first half of the 17th century, names of over 50 Uzbek nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes and clans are mentioned. The territory occupied by these tribes, as well as the population size of each, cannot be established due to insufficient data in the sources. Small fragmentary pieces of information allow determining the ethnic territory only of the Kipchaks, Mings, Qungrats, Qataghan, Naimans, and individual tribes and clans of Hazarajat: Tulkechi, Saykanchi, Zirengi, and Kilegi[58].

According to source materials, the territory or *yurt* of the Kipchaks was the regions of Chechektu, Qaysar, Almar, and Yabagu; the Mings occupied Maymana and its subject areas; the Qungrats lived in the vicinity of Termez and adjacent mountainous areas of the right bank of the Amu Darya; the Qataghans in the Kunduz region; and the Naimans and Kangles in the districts of Kholm and Aybak. The Tulkechi, Saykanchi, Zirengi, and Kilegi wandered within the limits of Andarab, Kahmard, Mulghan, and Dara-i Suf. Nomadic Arabs, descendants of the Arab conquerors, also lived in the territory of the khanate. According to Mahmud ibn Wali, their yurt was located in the vicinity of ancient Kholm[59].

Culture

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Libraries and Librarians

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Libraries existed at the courts of the khans, at madrasas, in revered mazars of Muslim saints, and among private high-ranking individuals inclined toward science and knowledge. In "Bahr al-Asrar", terms such as *kitabdar-i khassa* (khan's librarian), *kitabdar-i madrasa-i oliy* (madrasa librarian), and simply *kitabdar* are encountered. The collection of a madrasa library was in no way inferior to the khan's library, largely facilitated by the fact that the founders of madrasas — high-ranking individuals — often presented them with books as waqf. For example, Nadir Muhammad Khan transferred 2,000 volumes of books from his own library as a waqf to the library of the madrasa built by him in Balkh that bore his name. There were also personal libraries, such as those of the all-powerful Emir Qul Baba Kökeltash and Allayar Diwanbegi in Balkh. Certain officials, to immortalize their names, built their own libraries at their own expense in capital cities[60].

In the royal, sultanal, and madrasa libraries, a whole staff of copyists (*kitab navisandagon*), miniature painters (*munaqqashon*), inlayers (*muzahhibon*), editors (*muharriron*), bookbinders (*sahhafon*), and others worked. For example, the libraries of Nadir Muhammad Khan and Subhan Quli Khan are well known, where a number of valuable works were copied. Remarkably, the world's only manuscript copy of the final part of "Bahr al-Asrar", currently preserved in London, is also from Balkh and was copied in the library of Nadir Muhammad Khan by a certain Shah Qasim[61].

The royal librarian, as correctly indicated in the "Bukhara Treatise", conducted "the reception of works written and presented by religious scholars, writers, and poets [for royal inspection], after they were collected and approved by the sovereign; likewise, [he was responsible for] the restoration of books in the royal library." Curiously, in those distant times, the restoration of books was one of the main duties of the librarian — the *kitabdar*. The royal librarian, like the librarians of madrasas and mazars, was appointed by the khan. The former was maintained at the expense of the divan, while the latter were maintained at the expense of the waqf. The royal librarian enjoyed special favor from the khan and was counted among his close associates[61].

References

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  1. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 3.
  2. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 15.
  3. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 15–16.
  4. 1 2 Trever 1947, pp. 34–36.
  5. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, p. 75.
  6. 1 2 3 Ahmedov 1982, p. 76.
  7. ↑ Saidboboev 2011, p. 131.
  8. ↑ Trever 1947, pp. 50–51.
  9. ↑ Qumi 2016, p. 44.
  10. ↑ Barthold 1973, p. 142.
  11. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 76–78.
  12. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 78–79.
  13. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, p. 79.
  14. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, p. 80.
  15. ↑ Babur 1993, p. 313.
  16. 1 2 3 Ahmedov 1982, p. 81.
  17. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 81–82.
  18. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 82.
  19. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 82–83.
  20. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, pp. 83–84.
  21. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, p. 84.
  22. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 85.
  23. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 86.
  24. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, pp. 86–87.
  25. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 87–88.
  26. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 88.
  27. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 88–89.
  28. 1 2 Trever 1947, p. 58.
  29. 1 2 Gafurov 1989, p. 308.
  30. ↑ Trever 1947, p. 82.
  31. ↑ Burton 1997, pp. 116–117.
  32. ↑ Abduraimov 1966, p. 107.
  33. ↑ Mir Muhammad Amin-i Bukhari 1956, p. 6.
  34. 1 2 3 Munshi 1956, p. 11.
  35. ↑ Ahmedov 1985, pp. 50–51.
  36. ↑ Trever 1947, p. 86.
  37. ↑ Sistani 2000, p. 467.
  38. ↑ Lugovoy 2007, p. 113.
  39. ↑ Trever 1947, pp. 90–91.
  40. ↑ Trever 1947, p. 134.
  41. ↑ Trever 1947, p. 118.
  42. ↑ Hashimbekov 1994, pp. 8–9.
  43. ↑ Masson 1965, p. 84.
  44. 1 2 Masson 1965, p. 100.
  45. 1 2 3 Masson 1965, p. 143.
  46. ↑ Masson 1965, p. 473.
  47. 1 2 Gankovsky 1982, p. 130.
  48. ↑ Trever 1947, p. 124.
  49. ↑ Korgun 2004, p. 9.
  50. 1 2 Shokhumorov 2008, p. 23.
  51. ↑ Iskandarov 1960, pp. 92–95.
  52. ↑ Masson 1965, p. 223.
  53. ↑ Masson 1965, pp. 223–224.
  54. ↑ Masson 1965, p. 228.
  55. ↑ Ivanov 1958, p. 143.
  56. ↑ Iskandarov 1960, p. 93.
  57. ↑ Iskandarov 1960, p. 177.
  58. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, p. 122.
  59. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 122–123.
  60. ↑ Ahmedov 1982, pp. 166–167.
  61. 1 2 Ahmedov 1982, p. 167.
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