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Voiceless alveolar fricative

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from /s/ sound)
Voiceless alveolar sibilant
s
IPA number132
Audio sample
Encoding
Entity (decimal)s
Unicode (hex)U+0073
X-SAMPAs
Braille⠎ (braille pattern dots-234)

Voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at least five types with significant perceptual differences:

The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth and have a piercing, perceptually prominent sound.

Voiceless coronal fricatives
Inter-
dental		 Dental Denti-
alveolar		 Alveolar Post-alveolar
Retracted Retroflex Palato-
alveolar		 Alveolo-
palatal
Sibilant s̪ s̟ s͇ s̠ ʂ ʃ ɕ
Non-sibilant θ̟ θ θ̠ θ͇ ɻ̝̊ ɹ̠̊˔

Voiceless alveolar sibilant

[edit]

A voiceless alveolar sibilant is a common consonant sound in spoken languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass, and is represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨s⟩. It has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is often used to get someone's attention, using a call often written as sssst! or psssst!.

Voiceless alveolar sibilants [s] are one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically. If a language has fricatives, it will most likely have [s].[3] However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as [ʃ], but no [s]. In addition, sibilants are absent from most Australian Aboriginal languages, in which fricatives are rare; however, [s] does occur in Kalaw Lagaw Ya.[4]

Features

[edit]

Features of a voiceless alveolar sibilant:

  • Its manner of articulation is sibilant (a subclass of fricatives and affricates), which means it is generally produced with a higher-frequency turbulence. Sibilants may be articulated with various tongue shapes and degrees of palatalization, depending on their place of articulation.
  • There are at least three specific variants of [s]:
    • Dentalized laminal alveolar (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [s] is very strong.[5]
    • Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. According to Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation.
    • Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal. Acoustically, it is close to laminal [ʂ] or (to a lesser extent) [ʃ].
  • Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
  • It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
  • It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]

Dentalized laminal alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Acehnese[6][7] seuôt [s̻̪ɯˈʔot̠̚] 'to answer' See Acehnese phonology
ArabicGulf[8]مسجد (masjid)[mɐˈs̪d͡ʒɪd̪]'mosque'
ArmenianEastern[9]սար (sar)[s̪ɑɾ]ⓘ'mountain'
Azerbaijani[10]su[s̪u]'water'
Belarusian[11]стагоддзе (stağoddzě)[s̪t̪äˈɣod̪d̪͡z̪ʲe]'century'Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Bulgarian[12]всеки (vseki)[ˈfs̪ɛkʲi]'everyone'Contrasts with palatalized form.
ChineseMandarin[13][14]三 (sān)[s̪a̋n]'three'See Mandarin phonology
Czech[15]svět[s̪vjɛt̪]ⓘ'world'See Czech phonology
Chuvashсавăт (savët)[s̪aʋət]'vessel, glass'
EnglishAuckland[16]sand[s̪ɛnˑd̥]'sand'See English phonology
Multicultural London[17][s̪anˑd̥]
French[18][19][20]façade[fäs̪äd̪]'front'See French phonology
Hungarian[21]sziget[ˈs̪iɡɛt̪]'island'See Hungarian phonology
ItalianStandard[22]sali[ˈsäːli]'you go up'Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[22] See Italian phonology
Ticino[23]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] See Italian phonology
Kashubian[25]sus[ˈsus]'ground squirrel'
Kazakh[26]сом (sum)[s̪u̯ʊm]'pure'
Kyrgyz[27]сабиз (sabiz)[s̪äˈbis̪]'carrot'
Latvian[28]sens[s̪en̪s̪]'ancient'See Latvian phonology
Macedonian[29]скока (skoka)[ˈs̪kɔkä]'jump'See Macedonian phonology
Mirandesesangre[s̺ɐ̃(ŋ)ɡɾe]'blood'Contrasts seven sibilants altogether, preserving medieval Ibero-Romance contrasts.
NorwegianUrban East[30]sand[sɑnː]'sand'Most often dentalized laminal, but can be non-retracted apical for some speakers.[30] See Norwegian phonology
Polish[5][31]sum[s̪um]ⓘ'catfish'See Polish phonology
Romanian[32]surd[s̪ur̪d̪]'deaf'See Romanian phonology
Russian[33]волосы (volosy)[ˈvo̞ɫ̪əs̪ɨ̞]ⓘ'hair'Contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic[34]Slàinte[ˈs̪ɫ̪äːn̪t̪ʰʲə]'cheers'See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Serbo-Croatian[35][36]село (selo)[s̪ĕ̞lo̞]'village'See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovaksto[stɔ]'hundred'See Slovak phonology
Slovene[37]svet[s̪ʋêːt̪]'world'See Slovene phonology
SpanishAndalusian[1]casa[ˈkäs̻̪ä]'house'Present in dialects with ceceo. See Spanish phonology
Iberian[38]estar[e̞s̪ˈt̪äɾ]'to be'Allophone of /s/ before dental consonants.[38] See Spanish phonology
Swedish[39]Central Standard[40][41]säte[ˈs̪ɛːt̪ə]'seat'Retracted in some southern dialects.[42] See Swedish phonology
Toda[43][44] கொவ் (kos)[kɔs̪]'money'Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[45]
Turkish[18][46]su[s̪u]'water'See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian[47]село (selo)[s̪ɛˈɫ̪ɔ]'village'Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology
Upper Sorbian[48]sowa[ˈs̪owä]'owl'
Uzbek[49]soät[ˈs̪o̞æt̪]'hour'
VietnameseHanoi[50]xa[s̪äː]'far'See Vietnamese phonology

Alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Adygheсэ (sė)[sa]'I'
ArabicModern Standard[51]جَلَس (ǧalasa)[ˈdʒælæsɐ]'to sit'See Arabic phonology
Assyrianܣܝܦܐ (sèpa)[seːpaː]'sword'
Bengaliরাস্তা (rasta)[raːst̪a]'street'See Bengali phonology
Breton spered ['spered] 'spirit'
Burmeseစခန်း (ca.hkan:)[sə kʰáɰ̃]'camp'
Chechenсурт (surt)[suʊrt]'picture'
ChineseCantonese閃 (sim2)[siːm˧˥]'twinkle'See Cantonese phonology
Danish[52][53][54]sælge[ˈseljə]'sell'Most often non-retracted apical, but can be dentalized laminal for some speakers.[52][53][54] See Danish phonology
DutchBelgian Standard[55]scheepvaart[ˈsxeːˌp̪͡faˑrt]ⓘ'navigation'Laminal.[55] See Dutch phonology
Northern Standard[56][57][ˈsχep̪ˌfaˑɾtʰ]ⓘLaminal. It is laxer than in English, has a graver frication and is sometimes labialized. It is often retracted when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/.[56] See Dutch phonology
Emiliansèl[ˈs̺ʲɛːl]'salt'Palatalized apical;[58] may be [ʂ] or [ʃ] instead.[58]
Englishsit[sɪʔtʰ]ⓘ'sit'See English phonology
EsperantoEsperanto[espeˈranto]'Who hopes'See Esperanto phonology
Faroesesandur[sandʊɹ]'sand'
GermanStandard[59]Biss[bɪs]'bite'Varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.[59] See Standard German phonology
Georgian[60]სამი (sami)[ˈsɑmi]'three'
Hebrewספר (sefer)[ˈsefeʁ]'book'See Modern Hebrew phonology
Hindustaniसाल / سال (sāl)[säːl]'year'See Hindustani phonology
ItalianStandard[22]sali[ˈsäːli]'you go up'Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[22] See Italian phonology
Ticino[23]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] See Italian phonology
Japanese[61]複数形 (fukusūkē)[ɸɯkɯ̊sɯːkeː]'plural'See Japanese phonology
Kabardianсэ (sė)[sa]'I'
KarenS'gaw Karenစ့ၤ[romanization needed][sē]'silver'
Western Pwoစဲၪ့[romanization needed][sàiɴ]'to run'
Katësu[su]'sun'
Khmerអេស្ប៉ាញ (éspanh)[ʔeːˈspaːɲ]noun: 'Spain'
adjective: 'Spanish'		See Khmer phonology
ម៉ាស៊ីន (masin)[maːˈsiːn]'machine'
Korean섬 (seom)[sʌːm]'island'See Korean phonology
Malaysatu[satu]'one'
Malayalamസ്വപ്നം (svapnaṁ)[sʋəpɨn̪əm]'dream'See Malayalam phonology
Malteseiebes[eaˈbes]'hard'
Marathiसाप (sāp)[säːp]'snake'See Marathi phonology
Nepaliसगरमाथा (sagarmāthā)[sʌɡʌrmät̪ʰä]'Mount Everest'See Nepali phonology
Odiaସମାନ[romanization needed][sɔmänɔ]'equal'
OccitanLimousinmaichent[mejˈsẽ]'bad'
Persianسیب (sib)[sib]'apple'See Persian phonology
Portuguese[62]caço[ˈkasu]'I hunt'See Portuguese phonology
Punjabiਸੱਪ (sapp)[səpː]'snake'
Spanish[38]Latin Americansaltador[s̻a̠l̪t̪a̠ˈð̞o̞r]'jumper'See Spanish phonology and Seseo
Canarian
Andalusian
Filipino
SwahiliKiswahili[kiswaˈhili]'Swahili'
Sylhetiꠢꠂꠍꠦ (oise)[ɔise]'done'
Tagaloglasa[ˈlasɐ]'taste'
Tamilசாப்பிடு (sāppidu)[saːpːɪɖɯ]'to eat'See Tamil phonology
Ticino[23][example needed]Varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical.[24] Both variants may be labiodentalized.[23] See Italian phonology
Toki Pona suwi [suwi] 'sweet' Varies. See Toki Pona phonology
Vietnamese[63]xa[saː˧]'far'See Vietnamese phonology
Yiꌦ (sy)[sɹ̩˧]'die'

Retracted alveolar

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Asturianpasu[ˈpäs̺u]'step'Apical.
Basque[64][65]su[s̺u]'fire'Apical. Contrasts with a dentalized laminal sibilant.[64][65]
Catalan[66][67]Most dialectsset[ˈs̺ɛt̪]'seven'Apical. See Catalan phonology
Some Valencian speakers[68]peix[ˈpe̠js̠ʲ]'fish'Normally transcribed with ⟨ʂ⟩; realized as pre-palatal [ɕ] in Standard Catalan and Valencian.
patisc[päˈt̪is̠ʲk]'I suffer'
Dutch[57]Netherlandic speakerssik[ˈs̠ɪkʰ]ⓘ'goatee'Laminal and on the lax end of articulation spectrum. Can be labialized. If retracted is not the main allophone, may appear as such when preconsonantal, after rounded vowels and /r/.[56] See Dutch phonology
EnglishGlasgow[69]sun[s̺ʌn]'sun'Working-class pronunciation, other speakers may use a non-retracted [s]
Emiliansèinpar[ˈs̠æ̃.pər]'always'
Estonian[70]sõna[ˈsɤnɑ]'word'
Finnish[71]sinä[ˈsinæ]'you'Varies between non-retracted and retracted.[71] See Finnish phonology
Galiciansaúde[s̺äˈuðe]'health'Apical.
Greek[72]Κωνσταντινούπολις (Kōnstantinoúpolis)[ko̞nᵗstɐndi ˈn̠uˑpo̞lis̠ː]ⓘ'Constantinople'Varies between non-retracted and retracted, depending on the environment.[72] See Modern Greek phonology
Icelandic[73][74]USSS[ˈʔʏ̠s̠ː]ⓘ'(initialism) USSS'Usually apical,[73][74] can alternatively be laminal.[75] See Icelandic phonology
ItalianCentral Italy[76]sali[ˈs̠äːli]'you go up'Present in Lazio north of Cape Linaro,[76] most of Umbria[76]
(save Perugia and the extreme south),[76] Marche and south of Potenza.[76]
Northern Italy[77][78]Apical.[23] Present in many areas north of the La Spezia–Rimini Line.[79][80] Derived from local languages of northern Italy.
See Italian phonology
Sicily[76]Present south and west of a line drawn from Syracuse to Cefalù.[76]
Leonesepasu[ˈpäs̺ʊ]'step'Apical.
Low German[42][example needed]
Mirandesepasso[ˈpäs̺u]'step'Apical. Contrasts with /s̪/.
OccitanGascondos[d̻ys̺]'two'See Occitan phonology
Languedocien[d̻us̺]
Piedmontesesapin[s̠apiŋ]'pine'Apical.
Portuguese[62][81]European,
inland northern		cansaço[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̻u]'weariness'Apical. Contrasts with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology
European,
coastal northern		[kɐ̃ˈs̺as̺u]Merges with /s̻/. See Portuguese phonology
Inland and
southern Capixaba		pescador[pe̞s̺käˈd̻oχ]'fisherman'Realization of Portuguese coda sibilant, which may be postalveolars,
depending on dialect
Carioca do brejoescadas[is̺ˈkäd̻ɐs̺]'stairs'
SpanishAndeansaltador[s̺äl̪t̪äˈð̞o̞ɾ]'jumper'Apical. In Andean and Paisa (except in southern parts of Antioquia) alternates with a more frequent coronal-dental /s/.[82][83]
See Spanish phonology and seseo
Castilian[38]
Paisa accent
SwedishBlekinge[42]säte[ˈs̠ɛːte]'seat'See Swedish phonology
Bohuslän[42]
Halland[42]
Scania[42]
Toda[43][44]pōs̠[po:s̠]'milk'Contrasts /θ s̪ s̠ ʃ ʂ/. Voiced allophones are found in fast speech.[45]
VietnameseSaigon[84]xe[s̺ɛ˧]'vehicle'Apical.
West Frisian[56]sâlt[sɔːt]'salt'Laminal. It is laxer than in English and has a graver frication. It varies between retracted and non-retracted, depending on the environment.[56] See West Frisian phonology

Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative

[edit]
Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative
θ̠
t̞

A voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative (also known as a slit fricative) is a consonantal sound in some spoken languages. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for non-sibilant alveolar fricatives, this sound can be transcribed by use of diacritics, such as ⟨θ̠⟩ (a retracted [θ]) or ⟨t̞⟩ (a lowered [t], appears in the IPA Handbook).[85] Additional symbols include ⟨θ͇⟩ (with the alveolar diacritic, in extIPA) and ⟨ɹ̝̊⟩[86][a] (a raised and devoiced [ɹ], typically part of the affricate [tɹ̝̊]).

Features

[edit]
  • Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.
  • Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
  • It is an oral consonant, which means that air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
  • It is a median consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream down the midline of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
  • Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air only with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most speech sounds.

Occurrence

[edit]
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
EmilianBolognese[23]zidrån[θ̠iˈdrʌn]'lemon'
EnglishAustralian[87][88]mat[ˈmæt̞]'mat'Rare allophone of /t/.[87] See Australian English phonology
Irish[89]Italy[ˈɪt̞ɪli]'Italy'Common allophone of /t/. See Hiberno-English § Phonology
New Zealand[90]batter[ˈbɛt̞ə]'batter'One of many allophones of intervocalic /t/; may also be preaspirated. See New Zealand English phonology
Scouse[91][92]fit[ˈfɪθ͇]'fit'Common allophone of /t/. See Scouse § Phonology
Received Pronunciation[93]potato[pə̥ˈtʰɛɪ̯t̞ɜʉ̯]ⓘ'potato'Common allophone of intervocalic /t/.[93] See Received Pronunciation § Phonology
Icelandic[74][94]þú[θ̠uː]ⓘ'you' (≡ thou)Laminal.[74][94] Variably removed from the front teeth, up to (nearly) spot on [θ].[95] May be affricated word initially.[96] See Icelandic phonology

Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative

[edit]
Voiceless alveolar tapped fricative
ɾ̞̊

A few languages also have a voiceless alveolar tapped fricative, which is simply a very brief alveolar non-sibilant fricative, with the tongue making the gesture for a tapped stop but not making full contact. This can be indicated in the IPA with the lowering diacritic to show full occlusion did not occur, such as ⟨ɾ̞̊⟩.[97] Tapped fricatives are occasionally reported in the literature, though these claims are not generally independently confirmed and so remain dubious.

Flapped fricatives are theoretically possible but are not attested.[97]

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Afenmai[97]aru[aɾ̞̊u]'hat'tense equivalent of lax /ɾ/.[97]
EnglishGeneral American[98]city[ˈsɪɾ̞̊ɪ]'city'In free variation with a plain voiceless tap [ɾ̥]. Intervocalic allophone of /t/, more typically realized as a voiced tap [ɾ].[98] See General American English § T and D flapping
PortugueseEuropean[99]girar[ʒiˈɾ̞̊aɾ]'rotate'Common allophone of /ɾ/ in all positions, and in some cases may also be an allophone of /ʁ/.[99] See Portuguese phonology § Rhotics
Turkish[100]bir[biɾ̞̊]'a(n)'Word-final allophone of /ɾ/.[100] See Turkish phonology

Voiceless alveolar approximant

[edit]
Voiceless alveolar rhotic approximant
ɹ̥
Audio sample
Voiceless alveolar spirant approximant
s̞

A voiceless alveolar approximant is a similar sound with less turbulent airflow. The IPA has no dedicated symbol that represents this sound, but it may be transcribed as ⟨ɹ̥⟩ (a devoiced [ɹ]) or ⟨s̞⟩ (a lowered [s]). However, there may also be a featural distinction between these two transcriptions: [ɹ̥] has been described as a 'rhotic approximant', while [s̞] has been described as a 'spirant approximant'.[101]

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
DutchSpeakers mainly with coronal /r/[102]Geert[ɣeːɹ̥t]'Geert'One of many possible realizations of /r/; distribution unclear. See Dutch phonology
English[103]pray[ˈpɹ̥eɪ]'pray'Realization of /r/ after voiceless plosives, with [j̊] and [w̥] seeing equivalent patterning for /j/ and /w/.[103] See English phonology
Faroese[104]eiturkoppur[ˈaiːtʊɹ̥ˌkʰɔʰpːʊɹ]'spider'Devoiced approximant allophone of /r/.[104] See Faroese phonology
MiyakoanIrabu[105] [ps̞tu]'man'Devoiced allophone of [z̞] when occurring after a voiceless bilabial plosive /p/.[105] See Miyakoan language § Phonology
Spanish Chilean[106][107][101] socito [s̞oˈs̞it̪o] 'partner/buddy' (dim) Allophone of /s/. In variation with numerous other allophones (depending on position) with varying degrees of stigmatization, with up to 15 allophones of /s/ in total: three approximants [θ̞, θ̞᫈, s̞], ten fricatives [θ, θ̟, s, s͎, s̠, z, ɕ, ʂ᫈, h, ɦ], one affricate [ts], and one null phone [∅].[107]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ More specifically described as a "voiceless alveolar rhotic fricative",[86]: 712  which may be a slightly different sound than the other non-sibilant fricatives below.

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 Dalbor (1980), p. 9.
  2. ↑ Pandeli et al. (1997), p. ?.
  3. ↑ Maddieson (1984), p. ?.
  4. ↑ Jessica Hunter; Claire Bowern; Erich Round (1 June 2011). "Reappraising the Effects of Language Contact in the Torres Strait". Journal of Language Contact. 4 (1): 106–140. doi:10.1163/187740911X558798. ISSN 1877-4091. Wikidata Q56228341.
  5. 1 2 Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977), p. 149, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 154
  6. ↑ Durie 1984, pp. 13–15.
  7. ↑ Cowan, H. K. J. (1981). "An Outline of Achehnese Phonology and Morphology". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 44 (3): 522–549. ISSN 0041-977X.
  8. ↑ Qafisheh (1977), pp. 2, 9.
  9. ↑ Kozintseva (1995), p. 7.
  10. ↑ Axundov (1983), pp. 115, 128–131.
  11. ↑ Padluzhny (1989), p. 47.
  12. ↑ Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
  13. ↑ Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110.
  14. ↑ Lin (2001), pp. 17–25.
  15. ↑ Palková (1994), p. 228.
  16. ↑ Bauer & Warren (2004), p. 594.
  17. ↑ "English speech services | Accent of the Year / sibilants in MLE". 31 December 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
  18. 1 2 Adams (1975), p. 288.
  19. ↑ Fougeron & Smith (1999), p. 79.
  20. ↑ Grønnum (2005), p. 144.
  21. ↑ Szende (1999), p. 104.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Canepari (1992), p. 68.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Canepari (1992), p. 72.
  24. 1 2 3 Canepari (1992), pp. 68 and 72.
  25. ↑ Treder, Jerzy. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
  26. ↑ Kara (2002), p. 10.
  27. ↑ Kara (2003), p. 11.
  28. ↑ Nau (1998), p. 6.
  29. ↑ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
  30. 1 2 Skaug (2003), pp. 130–131.
  31. ↑ Rocławski (1976), pp. 149.
  32. ↑ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.[permanent dead link]
  33. ↑ Chew (2003), p. 67.
  34. ↑ Lamb (2003), p. 18.
  35. ↑ Kordić (2006), p. 5.
  36. ↑ Landau et al. (1999), p. 67.
  37. ↑ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 258.
  39. ↑ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 171.
  40. ↑ Engstrand (1999), pp. 140–141.
  41. ↑ Engstrand (2004), p. 167.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Adams (1975), p. 289.
  43. 1 2 Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 157.
  44. 1 2 Ladefoged (2005), p. 168.
  45. 1 2 Krishnamurti (2003), p. 66.
  46. ↑ Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154.
  47. ↑ Buk, Mačutek & Rovenchak (2008).
  48. ↑ Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38, 39.
  49. ↑ Sjoberg (1963), p. 11.
  50. ↑ Thompson (1987), pp. 8–9.
  51. ↑ Thelwall (1990), p. 37.
  52. 1 2 Basbøll (2005), pp. 61 and 131.
  53. 1 2 Thorborg (2003), p. 80. The author states that /s/ is pronounced with "the tip of the tongue right behind upper teeth, but without touching them." This is confirmed by the accompanying image.
  54. 1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 144. Only this author mentions both alveolar and dental realizations.
  55. 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 190.
  56. 1 2 3 4 5 Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 145, 190.
  57. 1 2 Gussenhoven (1999), p. 75.
  58. 1 2 Canepari (1992), p. 73.
  59. 1 2 Mangold (2005), p. 50.
  60. ↑ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
  61. ↑ Okada (1999), p. 117.
  62. 1 2 Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
  63. ↑ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
  64. 1 2 Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010), p. 1. Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety".
  65. 1 2 Hualde, J. Basque Phonology (1991) Routledge ISBN 0-415-05655-1
  66. ↑ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54.
  67. ↑ Torreblanca (1988), p. 347.
  68. ↑ Saborit (2009), p. 12.
  69. ↑ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2013-04-23.
  70. ↑ Kokkelmans, JOACHIM HENRI N (2021). "The Phonetics and Phonology of Sibilants: A Synchronic and Diachronic OT Typology of Sibilant Inventories". Università degli studi di Verona (in Italian). Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  71. 1 2 Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 27.
  72. 1 2 Arvaniti (2007), p. 12.
  73. 1 2 Kress (1982), pp. 23–24. "It is never voiced, as s in sausen, and it is pronounced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, close to the upper teeth – somewhat below the place of articulation of the German sch. The difference is that German sch is labialized, while Icelandic s is not. It is a pre-alveolar, coronal, voiceless spirant."
  74. 1 2 3 4 Pétursson (1971), p. ?, cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 145.
  75. ↑ Rögnvaldsson, Eiríkur (2017). "Íslensk hljóðkerfisfræði" [Icelandic phonology] (PDF) (in Icelandic). Reykjavík. pp. 36–37.
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adams (1975), p. 286.
  77. ↑ Adams (1975), pp. 285–286.
  78. ↑ Canepari (1992), pp. 71–72.
  79. ↑ Canepari (1992), p. 71.
  80. ↑ Adams (1975), p. 285.
  81. ↑ "2.3. Accenti romanze: Portogallo e Brasile (portoghese)" [Romance accents: Portugal and Brazil (Portuguese)] (PDF). Pronunce Straniere dell'Italiano [Foreign pronunciations of Italian] (in Italian). pp. 174–181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30.
  82. ↑ Joaquín Montes Giraldo (1992), p. 527.
  83. ↑ Betancourt Arango (1993), p. 285–286.
  84. ↑ Thompson (1959).
  85. ↑ International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63751-1. p. 16: …so that [t̞] could be used to indicate an articulation like that of an alveolar plosive but one in which complete closure is not achieved, yielding a fricative-like sound (but lacking the grooved tongue shape of [s]) as in some Irish English pronunciations of the sound at the end of right.
  86. 1 2 Konyak, Hoipo; Mulder, Mijke (2022). "A brief outline of Chen phonology". Proceedings of the 12th Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium. Payap University and UNRN Research Symposium 2022. Chiang Mai: Payap University. pp. 709–721. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
  87. 1 2 Loakes & McDougall (2007), pp. 1445–1448.
  88. ↑ Jones & McDougall (2009).
  89. ↑ Hickey (1984), pp. 234–235.
  90. ↑ Fiasson (2016).
  91. ↑ Marotta & Barth (2005), p. 385.
  92. ↑ Watson (2007), pp. 352–353.
  93. 1 2 Buizza (2011), pp. 16–28.
  94. 1 2 Grønnum (2005), p. 139.
  95. ↑ Rögnvaldsson (2017), p. 36.
  96. ↑ Haugen (1958), fn. 10.
  97. 1 2 3 4 Laver (1994), p. 263.
  98. 1 2 Laver (1994), pp. 263–264.
  99. 1 2 Jesus & Shadle (2005).
  100. 1 2 Yavuz & Balcı (2011), p. 25.
  101. 1 2 Candia & Rogers (2026), pp. 279–280.
  102. ↑ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 199. Authors do not say where exactly it is used.
  103. 1 2 Collins & Mees (2003), p. 75.
  104. 1 2 Árnason (2011), p. 115.
  105. 1 2 Shimoji (2008), pp. 44, 48.
  106. ↑ Sadowsky & Salamanca (2011), p. 79.
  107. 1 2 Sadowsky (2015), pp. 78–79, 86–87.

Bibliography

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