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Obsolete and nonstandard IPA symbols

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There are a variety of obsolete and nonstandard symbols (letters and diacritics) that have been used in and alongside the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). These fall into a few basic categories, including:

  • Those used historically in the IPA
    • Some represent standard phonetic values and have been modified or replaced completely, such as ⟨ɩ ɷ⟩ for modern [ɪ ʊ]
    • Others represent varied manners and places of articulation, phonation states, or sounds paired with secondary articulation, and have been dropped altogether with the idea that they should instead be indicated with diacritics, such as ⟨ƥ ƭ ƙ⟩ for modern [ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ɠ̊]
  • Those specific to local linguistic traditions that otherwise use standard IPA
    • Some represent sounds in a more simplified form, such as the Americanist ⟨ƛ λ⟩ for standard [t͡ɬ d͡ɮ]
    • Others represent phonemes and phones that may be generally difficult to describe with the usage of standard letters and diacritics, such as the Sinological ⟨ɿ ʮ⟩ for so-called "apical vowels"
  • Those which fill in "gaps" of the IPA chart
    • Some are "implicit" or "expected" symbols created or used by iconographic analogy to symbols for related sounds, such as ⟨ᴘ 𝼈 ⟩ for [ʙ̥ ɭ̆ ]
    • Others are simply created or used for common sounds that lack independent symbols, such as ⟨ᴀ ᴇ ꭥ⟩ for [ä e̞ o̞]
  • Those applying to any of the above categories that have been proposed for usage in or adjacent to the IPA
    • Some have been formally proposed to and rejected by the International Phonetic Association, many of which have been largely or entirely unused outside of their respective proposals
    • Others have been informally proposed and occasionally used but have lacked widespread consensus in their usage, often being idiosyncratic or seeing a number of competing proposals to represent a sound

These may all be referred to as para-IPA, a term describing "symbols that are commonly used within IPA notation but that are not themselves part of the IPA alphabet."[1]

[edit]

While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters (the ones that look like capitals are actually small capitals), many languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is Kabiyé of northern Togo, which has ⟨Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ⟩. Other pseudo-IPA capitals supported by Unicode are ⟨Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʃ (capital ʃ) Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ⟩ (see case variants of IPA letters).

Capital letters are also used as cover symbols in phonotactic descriptions: ⟨C⟩ = consonant, ⟨V⟩ = vowel, ⟨N⟩ = nasal, ⟨S⟩ = sonorant or sibilant, etc. When these symbols are used for indeterminate sounds, extIPA recommends the use of a surrounding circle ⟨◯⟩. The asterisk ⟨*⟩ is the convention the IPA uses when it has no symbol for a phone or feature, but which is typically determinate (for example the creaky-voiced glottal approximant reported by Ladefoged & Maddieson);[2] extIPA explicitly defines the symbol for this purpose. Symbols used in either case (indeterminate sounds and determinate but lacking a formal symbol) may be referred to as wildcard symbols. The table below includes a handful of other nonstandard wildcards.

In addition to the categories mentioned above, this table also contains symbols that are sometimes seen as typographical substitutes or are otherwise mistaken for proper IPA symbols due to similarity of shape. Typographical substitutions were commonly seen in the typewriter era, prior to the computer encoding of characters and introduction of Unicode. There are also some symbols from local linguistic traditions which are used as equivalents rather than simplifications (as are commonly seen for affricates).

The table does not include commonplace extensions or conventions of the IPA, such as doubling a symbol for a greater degree of a feature ([aːː] extra-long [a], [ˈˈa] extra stress, [kʰʰ] strongly aspirated [k], and [a˞˞] extra-rhotic [a]),[3] nor superscripting for a lesser degree of a feature ([ᵑɡ] slightly prenasalized [ɡ], [ᵗs] slightly affricated [s], and [ᵊ] epenthetic schwa).

Table

[edit]
Obsolete and/or nonstandard International Phonetic Alphabet symbols
Symbol or
exemplar		 Description Meaning in IPA Standard IPA
equivalent		 Notes
, comma secondary stress ˌ typewriter substitution
'
apostrophe

 primary stress ˈ
glottal stop ʔ
7 digit seven
? question mark
ɋ turned b with tail bilabial click ʘ used by Mattes & Omark (1984);[4] see click letter
Ꙩ, 𐍈, 𐓃 etc. circled dot a mistake, similarity of shape
ꜰ small capital f voiceless bilabial fricative ɸ replaced in 1928
φ Greek phi a mistake, typewriter substitution or similarity of shape
‼︎ double exclamation mark retroflex click 𝼊 typewriter substitution
⦀ or ⫻ triple bar or slash Used by Cole (1966);[5]: 226  recalls the dental and lateral click letters ⟨ǀ, ǁ⟩ as well as Doke's historical retroflex click letters ⟨ψ, ψ⟩
ψ Greek psi used by Doke (1925);[6] see click letter
bunched-r ɹ̈ proposed by Laver (1994)[7]
voiced bilabial fricative trill ʙ̝ used by Sinologists[8][9]
voiceless bilabial trill ʙ̥ used by Sinologists;[10] likely a reanalysis of the earlier described fricative trill
voiceless labial–alveolar sibilant affricate p͡s used by Blench (2008)[11]
voiced bilabial trill ʙ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴪ small capital Greek psi voiceless bilabial trill ʙ̥
ᴘ small capital p para-IPA, by analogy of ⟨ʙ⟩ for the voiced equivalent[13][14]
voiceless linguolabial plosive t̼ or p᫥ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987)[15][5]: 24 
voiceless labiodental plosive p̪ Proposed in 1911, rejected[16]
π Greek pi Proposed in 1911,[16] 1949,[17] and 1989,[18] rejected
ȹ qp ligature Used by Bantuists; also used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]

ᴍ

 small capital m voiced linguolabial nasal n̼ or m̼ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987)[15][5]: 24 
voiced labiodental nasal ɱ Proposed in 1911, rejected[16]
μ Greek mu
ŋm (m̡) m with middle hook

ʙ

 small capital b voiced linguolabial plosive d̼ or b̼ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987);[15][5]: 24  ⟨ʙ⟩ was approved for its current placement in 1989
voiced labiodental plosive b̪ Proposed in 1911, rejected[16]
β Greek beta
(℔) lb ligature Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
б Cyrillic be
ȸ db ligature Used by Bantuists; also used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
voiced linguolabial plosive d̼ or b̼ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
(ꝥ) thorn with stroke or t–p ligature voiceless linguolabial plosive t̼ or p᫥
nm m–n or n–m ligature fricated bilabial nasal m̾
nɱ m–ŋ or n–ɱ ligature voiced labial–velar nasal ŋ͡m
kp k–p ligature voiceless labial–velar plosive k͡p
Ƿ small capital wynn voiceless linguolabial fricative θ̼ or f̼ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987)[15][5]: 24 
θf theta–f ligature Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
8 small digit eight voiced linguolabial fricative ð̼ or v̼ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987)[15][5]: 24 
Ꞵð or ꞵð beta–eth ligature Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
ƀ b with stroke voiced bilabial fricative β used in the RFE Phonetic Alphabet
ß sharp s





a mistake, typewriter substitution or similarity of shape






∫ or integral symbol voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃ
3, з, or ȝ digit three, Cyrillic ze, or yogh open-mid central unrounded vowel ɜ
voiced postalveolar fricative ʒ
∂ partial differential voiced dental fricative ð
đ d with stroke
used in the RFE Phonetic Alphabet
δ or ẟ Greek delta or Latin delta used by Uralicists[12]
ϑ cursive Greek theta voiceless dental fricative θ
þ thorn Proposed by early 20th century American phoneticians for English dictionaries;[22] also proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
ŧ t with stroke Used by Meillet & Cohen (1952)[5]: 175 
ƃ b with top bar voiced bilabial trill ʙ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
(ɋ) b with left hook formerly used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages and its phonetic description,[23] now represented with ⟨br⟩
b̃ b with tilde Common Americanist convention, analogous to ⟨r̃, ṛ̃⟩ used for [r, ɽ͡r]
b with curl


proposed in 1931 (before ⟨ʙ⟩ was officially adopted), rejected[24]



𝼥 b with right mid hook
ᵬ b with top combining tilde
ƍ turned delta
labialized voiced alveolar or dental fricative zʷ, zᵝ, z̫, z͎, ðʷ intended for the voiced whistled sibilant of Bantu languages,[17] withdrawn 1976
ɀ z with swash tail used by Doke for Shona;[17] proposed to replace ⟨ƍ⟩ in 1931, rejected[24]
ɋ p with tail Allographs of Doke's ⟨ƍ⟩[5]: 128, 152 
ǫ reversed o with ogonek
σ sigma labialized voiceless alveolar or dental fricative sʷ, sᶲ, s̫, s͎, θʷ intended for the voiceless whistled sibilant of Bantu languages,[17] withdrawn 1976
ȿ s with swash tail used by Doke for Shona;[17] proposed to replace ⟨σ⟩ in 1931, rejected[24]
ƺ ezh with tail labialized voiced palatal or palato-alveolar fricative ʝʷ, ʝᵓ, ʒᶣ, ʒꟹ intended for w before front vowels in Twi;[17] may also be used for the lightly rounded English /ʒ/, withdrawn 1976
ƪ reversed esh with top loop labialized voiceless palatal or palato-alveolar fricative çʷ, çᵓ, ʃᶣ, ʃꟹ intended for ⟨hw⟩ before front vowels in Twi;[17] may also be used for the lightly rounded English /ʃ/, withdrawn 1976
ƻ barred digit two voiced alveolar affricate d͡z introduced in 1947, withdrawn 1976
ƾ t–s ligature (inverted glottal stop with stroke)[25] voiceless alveolar affricate t͡s
ȼ c with stroke Used by Americanists
(ɰ) h–m ligature voiceless bilabial nasal m̥ proposed in 1949, rejected[17]
(ꭋ) script r voiceless alveolar trill r̥
↊ (2) turned digit two voiceless pharyngeal fricative ħ
↋ (3) turned digit three voiced pharyngeal fricative ʕ
ꜫ tresillo uvular ejective qʼ used by Mayanists[5]: 15 
ꜭ cuatrillo alveolar ejective affricate or postalveolar ejective affricate or velar ejective tsʼ, tʃʼ, or kʼ
nʋ nv ligature (nwair) voiced labiodental nasal ɱ used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet[26]
close front rounded vowel y proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
ᵿ˞ barred horseshoe u with hook back sulcal vowel
w with left hook voiced labial–velar fricative (labialized voiced velar fricative) w̝ or ʍ̬ or ɣʷ
long-leg g voiced velar lateral approximant ʟ
ʕr reversed glottal stop–r ligature voiced epiglottal trill ʢ
ʕʀ reversed glottal stop–small capital R ligature
letters with left-swinging top hook dental consonants t̪ d̪ n̪ l̪ r̪
т д н л р Cyrillic letters
𝼪 𝼥 𝼧 𝼦 𝼨 𝼩 letters with left-swinging mid hook retroflex consonants ʈ ɖ ɳ ɭ ɻ ʂ ʐ Malayalam transcriptions;[27] briefly used in the 1921 chart, with ⟨r⟩ for [ɻ] instead of ⟨𝼨⟩
n with left arm voiced dental nasal n̪ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 118 
ƕ hv ligature (hwair) voiceless labial–velar approximant ʍ̞ or w̥ appears only in the 1921 chart
voiceless alveolar lateral fricative ɬ proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
hɥ h–turned h ligature voiceless labial–palatal approximant ɥ̊ appears only in the 1921 chart
back esh sj-sound ɧ historical appearance of ⟨ɧ⟩ from its introduction in 1947 until 1979, when its gained its full left leg
ƃ or б small capital b with top bar or Cyrillic be voiced bilabial frictionless continuant β̞ proposed in 2011[28]
ъ small capital Cyrillic hard sign
β reversed Greek beta used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
β turned Greek beta para-IPA[30]


(δ)


 small capital Greek delta mid back unrounded vowel ɤ̞ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 19 
voiced dental frictionless continuant ð̞ proposed in 2011[28]
ƌ or б small capital d with top bar or reversed Cyrillic be
ð reversed eth used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ð turned eth
proposed in 2010[31]

ᴆ small capital eth
partially-devoiced dental fricative ð̥ used by Uralicists; in the case of the fricative, the form used was actually struck all the way through the bowl, as in ⟨ᴅ̶⟩ (ᴅ), but was encoded into Unicode as a single letter with the tap[12]
voiceless alveolar tap and flap ɾ̥
σ small capital reversed Greek sigma voiced alveolar frictionless continuant z̞ proposed in 2011;[28] in response, Recasens (2011) rejected the need for special symbols in favor of simply using the diacritic for lowering, while maintaining a distinction between the rhotic [ɹ] and frictionless continuant [z̞][32]
ƨ reversed s
z reversed z used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ʑ reversed z with curl voiced alveolo-palatal frictionless continuant ʑ̞ used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ƹ reversed ezh voiced pharyngeal fricative ʕ it is based on the Arabic letter ʿayn (ع) instead of letter ezh,[5]: 209  used in Arabic and Ethiopic transcriptions
voiced postalveolar frictionless continuant ʒ̞ proposed in 2011;[28] used by Ball et al. in 2020[29]
ᶎ reversed z with retroflex hook voiced retroflex frictionless continuant ʐ̞ used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ȥ z with hook voiceless dental sibilant s̪ Old High German studies[5]: 202 
J capital inverted J voiced palatal frictionless continuant ʝ̞ proposed in 2011;[28] in response, Recasens (2011) rejected the need for special symbols in favor of simply using the diacritic for lowering, while maintaining a distinction between the semivowel [j] and frictionless continuant [ʝ̞][32] (called a spirant approximant by Martínez-Celdrán [2004], who made the same transcription recommendation)[33]
ʝ reversed curly-tail j used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ᴦ small capital Greek gamma voiced velar frictionless continuant ɣ̞ proposed in 2011;[28] in response, Recasens (2011) rejected the need for special symbols in favor of simply using the diacritic for lowering, while maintaining a distinction between the semivowel [ɰ] and frictionless continuant [ɣ̞][32] (called a spirant approximant by Martínez-Celdrán [2004], who made the same transcription recommendation)[33]
ɣ inverted Latin gamma used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ʁ̢ or ʁ̨ small capital inverted r with hook voiced uvular approximant ʁ̞ proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
small capital inverted R with left arm
ρ Greek rho voiced bilabial trill ʙ proposed by Heffner (1950) before ⟨ʙ⟩ was officially adopted[5]: 154 
ϱ cursive Greek rho voiced uvular trill ʀ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴩ small capital Greek rho voiceless uvular trill ʀ̥
ᴙ small capital reversed r appears sporadically in historical charts[34][35][36]
voiced epiglottal trill ʢ proposed for extIPA in 2018,[37] used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
voiced uvular approximant ʁ̞ proposed in 2011[28]
ᴚ small capital turned r proposed in 2011;[28] used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
voiceless uvular fricative χ / ꭓ replacement introduced in 1921, officially replaced in 1928[38]
ʖ inverted glottal stop alveolar lateral click ǁ removed 1989; see click letters, but some African languages still use this symbol to avoid confusion with ⟨‖⟩ (major break)
voiced pharyngeal approximant ʕ̞ proposed in 2011[28]
ʔ turned glottal stop used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
9 digit nine Proposed by Smalley (1963)[5]: 216 
ʢ or ƾ turned glottal stop with stroke voiced epiglottal approximant ʢ̞ used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ɦ reversed h with hook voiced glottal approximant ɦ̞
h reversed h (strong) voiceless glottal fricative h͈ suggested by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
gamma with left hook voiced prevelar fricative ɣ᫈ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 68 
gamma with right hook voiced postvelar or uvular fricative ɣ᫢ or ʁ
, , (ǥ) single-loop g with stroke voiced velar fricative ɣ replaced double-loop ⟨g⟩ in 1900, then replaced by gamma ⟨ɣ⟩ in 1931;[24] between that time, the letter took on slightly different shapes, with the stroke going from diagonal to horizontal. The character ⟨ǥ⟩ may not have the single-loop shape in some fonts, and may also have the stroke at the bowl instead of the descender
(ɡ̶ or g) g with bowl stroke Occasional Americanist usage[5]: 60 
γ Greek gamma a mistake, typewriter substitution or similarity of shape; also used by Americanists and Uralicists
hooktop ezh proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
ƣ gha Romanization in Turkic languages
(g) double-loop g used in the early alphabet from 1895 to 1900; replaced with [ǥ] in the 1900 chart
voiced velar plosive ɡ standard Unicode Basic Latin/ASCII lower-case ⟨g⟩ (U+0067) may have a double-loop g glyph. The preferred IPA single-loop ⟨g⟩ (U+0261) is in the IPA Extensions Unicode block. For a time it was proposed that the double-loop g might be used for [ɡ] and the single-loop g for [ɡ̟] (⟨ᶃ⟩),[17] but the distinction never caught on. See 1948 merger
ʆ curly-tail esh palatalized voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative ʃʲ or ɕ variant, also for Russian ⟨щ⟩; removed 1989
voiceless laminal closed postalveolar sibilant (hissing-hushing) ʃ̻͆ occasional modern usage[39][19]
ᵷ turned g (double-loop) withdrawn 1904
ŝ s with circumflex used by Catford;[40] proposed in 1989, rejected[41]
ʓ curly-tail ezh palatalized voiced palato-alveolar fricative or voiced alveolo-palatal fricative ʒʲ or ʑ variant, removed 1989
voiced laminal closed postalveolar sibilant (hissing-hushing) ʒ̻͆ occasional modern usage[39][19]
ʒ turned ezh withdrawn 1904
ẑ z with circumflex used by Catford;[40] proposed in 1989, rejected[41]
ȶ, ȡ, ȵ, ȴ curly-tail t, d, n, l alveolo-palatal consonants c̟, ɟ᫈, ɲ᫈, ʎ̟
or
t̠ʲ, d̠ʲ, n̠ʲ, l̠ʲ		 used by some Sinologists; also used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
𝼍 𝼏 𝼎 𝼌 curly-tail click letters nasal clicks ǀ̃ ǃ̃ ǁ̃ ǂ̃ or ᵑǀ ᵑǃ ᵑǁ ᵑǂ Used by Beach (1938)[5]: 34, 173, 178, 214 
ꬺ m with crossed-tail voiced labiodental nasal ɱ used in Teuthonista[42]
ꬻ n with crossed-tail voiced velar nasal ŋ used in Teuthonista,[42] Dania, and Anthropos
ꬼ eng with crossed-tail voiced palatal or velar nasal ɲ or ŋ Used in Teuthonista[42]
ř r with caron voiced alveolar fricative trill r̝ Intended for ř in Czech and related languages; replaced in 1947[43]
ɼ long-leg r Introduced in 1947,[43] withdrawn 1989; used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
syllabic alveolar trill r̩ a mistake
r or ɹ inverted r voiced alveolar or postalveolar rhotic fricative ɹ̝ or ɹ̝᫢ used by Ball et al. in 2020[29] and AddPhon in 2025[19]
ɹ̡ or 𝼕 inverted r with retroflex hook voiced retroflex rhotic fricative ɻ̝
turned r with left retroflex hook Proposed by Ball (2026)[44]
ꜧ heng voiced alveolar lateral fricative ɮ replaced ⟨ɮ⟩ in 1938; the letter has had a multitude of values in other phonetic transcription systems, see ⟨ꜧ⟩
l–yogh ligature compromise form of ⟨ɮ⟩ and ⟨ꜧ⟩ used from 1947 until 1989
curly-tail l–ezh ligature palatalized voiced alveolar lateral fricative ɮ used by Doke (1931)[45]
turned y with reversed belt voiceless palatal lateral fricative 𝼆 proposed in 1989, rejected[41]
ʎᴊ small capital J–turned y ligature voiced palatal lateral fricative ʎ̝ or 𝼆̬
ʎʒ turned y–ezh ligature used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ʟʒ small capital l–ezh ligature voiced velar lateral fricative ʟ̝ or 𝼄̬
ɮ reversed l–ezh ligature proposed in 1989, rejected[18][41]
(ɬ) reversed l with belt voiceless velar lateral fricative 𝼄
Ꙫ uppercase Cyrillic o with two dots inside nasal-ingressive velic trill 𝼀↓ a paralinguistic impression of a snort, due to the graphic resemblance to a pig snout[46]
ђ Cyrillic dje voiced pharyngeal nasal used by Sinologists;[10] it is debated whether such a sound is physically possible to produce
♀ feminine sign voiced pharyngeal plosive 𝼂 Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 129 
⚲ neuter sign voiceless pharyngeal plosive ꞯ
ᴅ small capital d voiced alveolar tap and flap ɾ used by Americanists
postalveolar "slight retroflexed" trill 𐞨r̠ Proposed in 1989, rejected;[18] reportedly in Nias language
lenis alveolar plosive d̥ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴃ small capital barred b partially-devoiced bilabial fricative β̥
ᴊ small capital j voiceless palatal approximant j̊
voiced palatal fricative ʝ Used by Catford (1982) [1977][47][5]: 97 
ᴌ small capital l with stroke voiceless velarized alveolar lateral approximant ɫ̥ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴫ small capital Cyrillic el voiceless velar lateral approximant ʟ̥
ᴎ small capital reversed n or engma voiceless velar nasal ŋ̊
ᴤ voiced laryngeal spirant voiced glottal fricative ɦ
ᴥ Latin ain glottal stop ʔ
ʟ small capital l voiced linguolabial lateral approximant l̼ Used by PRDS Group (1983), suggested by Ball (1987);[15][5]: 24  ⟨ʟ⟩ was approved for its current placement in 1989
ʟ reversed small capital l voiced labial lateral approximant β̞ˡ Proposed by Trager (1964);[5]: 109  it is debated whether such a sound is physically possible to produce
λ or ꟛ Greek lambda or Latin lambda voiced palatal lateral approximant ʎ a mistake or typewriter substitution
voiced alveolar lateral affricate d͡ɮ used by Americanists
ƛ barred lambda voiceless alveolar lateral affricate t͡ɬ
ł l with stroke voiceless alveolar lateral fricative ɬ used by Americanists, also a typographic substitute
voiced velarized alveolar lateral approximant (dark l) ɫ / lˠ used by Uralicists and in Baltic transcriptions
ꬸ l with double middle tilde voiced pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant (strongly dark l) ɫ / lˤ used in Teuthonista alongside ⟨ꬷ⟩ (weakly dark l), forming a three-degree cline of ⟨ꬷ ɫ ꬸ⟩; para-IPA, by extension of the conventional doubling for a greater degree[48]
ꬹ l with middle ring palatalized voiced alveolar lateral lʲ Used in Teuthonista,[42] specifically denoting "wide" or "broad" palatalization and narrow lateral openings
ƒ f with hook voiceless labiodental fricative f homoglyphic in many italic fonts
voiceless bilabial fricative ɸ used in Ewe transcriptions and in the Africa Alphabet[5]: 58 
ᵽ or p̶ (p) p with middle stroke used by Americanists[49][5]: 21, 36–37 
(ᵽ, b̶, b) b with middle stroke voiced bilabial fricative β
b̸ b with solidus
(d̶, ᵽ, d) d with middle stroke voiced dental fricative ð
d̸ or (d̶ or d) d with solidus
š s with caron voiceless postalveolar or retroflex fricative ʃ or ʂ used by Americanists and Uralicists; also seen in the romanization of some Semitic and Slavic languages
ž z with caron voiced postalveolar or retroflex fricative ʒ or ʐ
č c with caron voiceless postalveolar or retroflex affricate t͡ʃ or ʈ͡ʂ
ǰ j with caron voiced postalveolar or retroflex affricate d͡ʒ or ɖ͡ʐ used by Americanists
ǧ g with caron seen in the romanization of some Semitic languages
ǯ ezh with caron used by Uralicists
𝼞 curly-tail s voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative ɕ used by Roos (1998, 2000) in an Americanist system;[50] under this convention, ⟨c č 𝼝 ɕ⟩ corresponds to ⟨ts tš tʂ t𝼞⟩ = Americanist ⟨c č c̣ ć⟩ = IPA ⟨ts tʃ tʂ tɕ⟩. The voiced equivalents are ⟨ʒ ǯ ᶚ ʓ⟩ under this convention, corresponding to ⟨dz dž dʐ dʑ⟩ = Americanist ⟨dz ǰ dẓ dź⟩ = IPA ⟨dz dʒ dʐ dʑ⟩.
𝼝 c with retroflex hook voiceless retroflex affricate ʈ͡ʂ
ć ĺ ń ś ź dź c l n s z dz with acute accent alveolo-palatal or palatal/postalveolar consonants t͡ɕ l̠ʲ n̠ʲ ɕ ʑ d͡ʑ
or
t͡ʃ ʎ ɲ ʃ ʒ d͡ʒ		 used by Slavicists, Uralicists, and Americanists
ꝁ k with bar voiceless velar fricative x Used by Meillet & Cohen (1952)[5]: 99 
ẋ x with dot voiceless uvular fricative χ used by Americanists
ᴋ small capital k voiceless uvular plosive q proposed in 1925,[51] rejected;[52] analogous to other uvulars marked with small capitals
(ℜ) blackletter R voiced uvular flap ɢ̆ Proposed in 1989, rejected;[18] deemed too complicated for dot-matrix printing
baby gamma close-mid back unrounded vowel ɤ used from 1921 to 1989, replaced by ramshorn to avoid confusion with gamma; U+0264 ɤ LATIN SMALL LETTER RAMS HORN now represents both glyphs
0, (0̷), or Ø digit zero, slashed digit zero or uppercase slashed o null onset or zero phone ∅ usually used in phonology to mean a spelling with no sound value. however, in Chinese and some Korean linguistics, some scholars use it for a weak glottal stop; the sound value of the first consonant of syllables started by a vowel.
ƥ ƭ 𝼉 ƈ ƙ ʠ hooktop p, t, ʈ, c, k, q voiceless implosives ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥
or
pʼ↓ tʼ↓ ʈʼ↓ cʼ↓ kʼ↓ qʼ↓		 brief additions to the IPA, removed 1993; used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ʇ turned t dental click ǀ removed 1989; see click letters, but in some African languages still use this symbol to avoid confusion with ⟨l⟩ (voiced alveolar lateral approximant) and/or ⟨|⟩ (minor break)
ʗ stretched c alveolar click ǃ removed 1989; see click letters
voiced retroflex flap ɽ some assumed this symbol was made by combining ⟨ɾ⟩ with ⟨◌̢⟩ and thus was used as the symbol for voiced retroflex flap [ɽ]; ⟨ɽ⟩ assumed as the symbol of voiced retroflex trill [ɽr].[53][54]
ʗ reversed stretched c palatal or laminal click ǂ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
ʞ turned k originally a palatal click, reinterpreted as a back-released velar click Used in the Anthropos phonetic alphabet for a 'velar' click. Adopted by Jones for a palatal click for the 1921 chart; later comments show he interpreted this sound as velar. A click with a forward velar release was later judged impossible, and the symbol was therefor retired from the IPA.[5]: 101 [55] For several years it was used in extIPA for a velodorsal stop, but this was changed to ⟨𝼃⟩ (⟨k⟩) when it was resurrected for the para-lexical back-released click.[37]
ᴋ or 𝼐 small capital reversed k wildcard for any consonant C suggested in 1949[17]
(ᴜ) small capital inverted u wildcard for any vowel V
double barred dotless j voiced palatal implosive ʄ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
(ȷ̒) j with top hook Used by Smalley (1963)[5]: 92 
𝼋 (⨎) esh with two bars old form of ⟨ʄ⟩
fricated palatal click ǂǂ or ǃ͡s uncommon letter in Ekoka !Kung transcription
ȣ ou ligature close-mid back unrounded vowel or voiced velar fricative ɤ or ɣ a mistake
ɿ reversed r with fishhook syllabic denti-alveolar approximant ɹ̪̍,[56] ɹ̟̍, z̪̍,[57] z̞̍,[58] or ◌͡ɯ[59] used by Sinologists, and by Japanologists specifically for the Miyako and Tarama languages.
℩ turned iota old form of ⟨ɿ⟩, used by Sinologists, and by Japanologists specifically for the Miyako and Tarama languages.
ʅ squat reversed esh syllabic retroflex approximant ɹ̠̍, ɻ̍,[57][56] ʐ̍, ʐ̞̍,[58] or ◌͡ɨ[59] used by Sinologists. See Chinese vowels
ʃ or ꭍ reversed (baseline) esh old form of ⟨ʅ⟩, used by Sinologists. See Chinese vowels
ʮ turned h with fishhook labialized syllabic denti-alveolar approximant ɹ̩ʷ, z̩ʷ, or ◌͡u used by Sinologists
ʯ turned h with fishhook and tail labialized syllabic retroflex approximant ɻ̍ʷ, ʐ̍ʷ, or ◌͡ʉ
ꭤ inverted Latin alpha open back unrounded vowel ɑ used by Kurath (1939),[60] where ⟨ɑ⟩ is instead used for the open central unrounded vowel
α Greek alpha a mistake; homoglyphic in many sans-serif and italic fonts
α turned Greek alpha open back rounded vowel ɒ
ꬰ barred Latin alpha open central unrounded vowel ä, ɑ̈, ɐ̞͑, a̠, ɑ̟ Proposed by Charles-James N. Bailey in 1976[61]
ᴀ small capital a used by Sinologists; recommended to and rejected by the IPA multiple times
open back unrounded vowel ɑ Early historical usage from the description of French in the pre-1900 founding alphabet charts
devoiced open back unrounded vowel ɑ̥ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴁ small capital æ devoiced near-open front unrounded vowel æ̥
a reversed a near-open front unrounded vowel æ Proposed in 1949[17] and 1989,[18] rejected; suggested as ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ɑ⟩ are commonly conflated graphically. Had the proposals been accepted, ⟨æ⟩ would have been re-identified as the value for [a], to allow for such conflations without issue; both ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ɑ⟩ would have represented [ɑ].
ꜵ ao ligature open central unrounded vowel ä, ɑ̈, ɐ̞͑, a̠, ɑ̟ Used by Leoni & Maturi (2002)[62]
near-open front rounded vowel œ̞ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 13, 16 
(Ꜵ) small capital ao ligature open front rounded vowel ɶ
(ᴀ) small capital turned a close-mid back unrounded vowel ɤ replacement introduced in 1921, officially replaced in 1928
near-open central unrounded vowel ɜ̞ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 15 
E uppercase e mid front unrounded vowel e̞, ɛ̝ Used by some Koreanists, where in many dialects there is no phonemic differentiation between /e/ (RR e; Hangul ㅔ) and /ɛ ~ æ/ (RR ae; Hangul ㅐ). In the Gyeongsang dialects, a parallel case historically existed with a lack of differentiation between /ʌ/ (RR eo; Hangul ㅓ) and /ɨ ~ ɯ/ (RR eu; Hangul ㅡ), sometimes written with an uppercase reversed ⟨Ǝ⟩;[63][64] however, the exact phonetic value of this vowel varies in different reports (unlike ⟨E⟩, which is rather consistent), and the merger is disappearing in younger speakers, though still present in older speakers.
ᴇ small capital e Proposed by Bloch & Trager (1942); used by Sinologists
close-mid front unrounded vowel e Early historical usage from the description of French in the pre-1900 founding alphabet charts
devoiced close-mid front unrounded vowel e̥ used by Uralicists[12]
ⱻ small capital turned e devoiced mid central vowel ə̥
ꬳ barred e close-mid central unrounded vowel ɘ used by Teuthonista
ε Greek epsilon open-mid front unrounded vowel ɛ a mistake, typewriter substitution or similarity of shape; homoglyphic in most fonts
ϵ lunate epsilon occasional usage as a typographic variant
϶ reversed lunate epsilon open-mid central unrounded vowel ɜ
ʚ closed Latin epsilon open-mid central rounded vowel ɞ appears sporadically in historical charts (1907, 1921, 1926); considered a typographical error when reinstituted 1993, corrected in 1996
(ꞓ or ɔ) turned c with bar or barred open o originally proposed by Trager (1964),[5]: 144  later proposed by Catford in 1989[18] and 1990[65]
(ω or ო) turned omega near-open central rounded vowel ɞ̞ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 147 
ɩ Latin iota near-close front unrounded vowel ɪ̟, i̞, e̝ repurposed by Sinologists
near-close near-front unrounded vowel ɪ longstanding alternate symbol until 1989
ı dotless small i a mistake or typographic substitute; occasionally used by Americanists
close front unrounded vowel i placeholder for modified sound, by placing diacritic above (e.g. /ı̽/, /ȷ̊/).
ȷ dotless small j voiced palatal approximant j
ᵻ barred small capital i near-close central unrounded vowel (schwi) ɪ̈, ɨ̞, ɘ̝, ɪ̠ an analogous combination of ⟨ɪ⟩ and ⟨ɨ⟩, two vowels of which it lies between; used by some English phoneticians and dictionaries (such as the Oxford English Dictionary, where it may be more broadly described as any obscure vowel between [i] or [ɪ] and [ə], and called schwi);[66][67] Americanist notation[68]
ᵼ barred Latin iota used by Slavicists[68]
(ɪ
ə)		 small capital i over schwa used by some English phoneticians and dictionaries (such as the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English);[49] may be more broadly described as any obscure vowel between [i] or [ɪ] and [ə]
ꝋ barred o close-mid central rounded vowel ɵ variant shape of ⟨ɵ⟩ in some early 20th century works.[69]
(ꭥ̶ or ᵿ) barred small capital omega mid central rounded vowel ɵ̞ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 149 
ꭥ (ʊ or ω) small capital omega mid back rounded vowel o̞, ɔ̝ Proposed by Bloch & Trager (1942)
o̧ o with cedilla used by Sinologists[10]
ⱺ o with low ring inside used in the Swedish Dialect Alphabet
ꝏ double o ligature near-close back rounded vowel ʊ̠ Used for the Massachusett language, representing a sound similar to French ⟨ou⟩[5]: 140 
ᴏ small capital o devoiced close-mid or open-mid back rounded vowel o̥ or ɔ̥ used by Uralicists[12]
ᴐ small capital open o devoiced open-mid back rounded vowel ɔ̥
ↄ reversed c open-mid back rounded vowel ɔ a mistake or similarity of shape; homoglyphic in many fonts
ꭢ open o–e ligature open-mid front rounded vowel œ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 144 
ұ Cyrillic straight U with stroke near-close near-back unrounded vowel ɯ̽ or ʊ̜ used in Mande studies[70]
ъ Cyrillic hard sign Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 21 
ω or ꞷ Greek or Latin omega Used by Wells (1982),[71] by analogy of the obsolete ⟨ɷ⟩ symbol
near-open back rounded vowel ɒ̝, ɔ̞ Proposed by Bloch & Trager (1942); used by Sinologists[10]
near-close back rounded vowel ʊ̠, u̞, o̝ used in the phonetic description of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages[23]
ɷ closed Latin omega repurposed by Sinologists
near-close near-back rounded vowel ʊ longstanding alternate symbol until 1989
ᴜ small capital u Americanist notation; also the shape of ⟨ʊ⟩ in the original 1900 chart, reused in the 1921 chart
devoiced close back rounded vowel u̥ used by Uralicists[12]
half barred u close central rounded vowel ʉ Proposed by Trager (1964)[5]: 183 
ꞹ u with stroke Occasional typographical variant[5]: 183 
ᵿ barred Latin upsilon near-close central rounded vowel (schwu) ʊ̈, ʉ̞, ɵ̝, ʊ̟ an analogous combination of ⟨ʊ⟩ and ⟨ʉ⟩, two vowels of which it lies between; used by some English phoneticians and dictionaries (such as the Oxford English Dictionary, where it may be more broadly described as any obscure vowel between [u] or [ʊ] and [ə], and called schwu)[66][67]
(ɷ̶ or ɷ) barred closed Latin omega an analogous combination of ⟨ɷ⟩ and ⟨ʉ⟩
ᵾ barred small capital u Americanist notation[68]
(ʊ
ə)		 small capital Latin upsilon over schwa used by some English phoneticians and dictionaries (such as the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English);[49] may be more broadly described as any obscure vowel between [u] or [ʊ] and [ə]
υ Greek upsilon voiced labiodental approximant ʋ a mistake or typographic substitute
(ɯ̶ or ɯ) turned m with bar close central unrounded vowel ɨ Proposed by Ball (2026) as an alternative equivalent[44]
ᵫ u–e ligature open front rounded vowel or near-open near-front rounded vowel y or ʏ used by some English dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster[72]
ɏ barred y close central compressed vowel ÿ para-IPA, by analogy of central ⟨i u⟩ being transcribed as ⟨ɨ ʉ⟩; used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ɏ or ʏ̵ (ʏ) small capital barred y near-close central compressed vowel ʏ̈ para-IPA, by analogy of central ⟨ɪ ʊ⟩ being transcribed as ⟨ᵻ ᵿ⟩
ɉ barred j voiced post-palatal approximant ȷ̈ or ɰ̈ used by Ball et al. (2011, 2020, 2025)[28][29][19]
(ɰ̶ or ɰ) turned m with long leg and bar Proposed by Ball (2026) as an alternative equivalent to para-IPA ⟨ɉ⟩[44]
(ɥ̶ or ɥ) barred turned h compressed post-palatal approximant ɥ̈ used by Ball et al. (2011, 2025);[28][19] in the Unicode Pipeline, approved for version 18.0[73][1]
(w̶ or w) barred w protruded post-palatal approximant ẅ used by Ball et al. (2020, 2025);[29][19] in the Unicode Pipeline, approved for version 18.0[73][1]
B G H I L N Œ Q R Y uppercase letters small caps ʙ ɢ ʜ ɪ ʟ ɴ ɶ ꞯ ʀ ʏ often mistaken, typographic substitute
H uppercase h long vowel (chōonpu) ː used by Japanologists to represent a phonemic long vowel, such as /aH/[74] or /aR/[75]
R uppercase r
Q uppercase q long consonant (sokuon) used by Japanologists; typically marks gemination, but may also be realized as a glottal stop [ʔ] in certain contexts
X uppercase x voiceless uvular fricative χ a mistake or typographic substitute
Y uppercase y voiced labial–palatal approximant ɥ
ƞ n with long right leg moraic nasal (hatsuon) m, ɰ̃, ɴ, etc. Intended for the moraic nasal of Japanese;[17] withdrawn 1976. Now often written by Japanologists as an uppercase /N/ (common wildcard for nasal consonants).
voiced velar nasal ŋ used by Uralicists and in Dania transcription
η Greek eta a mistake or typographic substitute (historically very common in typewriter usage)
ⱴ v with curl labiodental flap ⱱ historically used before ⟨ⱱ⟩ was officially adopted by the IPA in 2005[76]
v̶ (v) barred v used in the phonetic description of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages,[23] associated with the grapheme ⟨vb⟩
ⱳ w with hook bilabial flap ⱱ̟ or b̮ para-IPA, by analogy of ⟨ⱱ⟩ for the labiodental equivalent.[77] In literature, this sound has often been transcribed as ⟨w̆⟩, also by analogy of the labiodental formerly being transcribed as ⟨v̆⟩; see bilabial flap for further examples and explanation
glottalic (preglottalized) labial–velar approximant wˀ, ˀw, ʔw, or w̰ para-IPA, by analogy of the right-swinging top hook for implosives. Used in several African alphabets; see w with hook and y with hook for examples
ƴ y with hook glottalic (preglottalized) palatal approximant jˀ, ˀj, ʔj, or j̰
turned m with fishhook and curl voiced labial–velar approximant w Proposed in 1989, rejected;[18] in this scheme, ⟨w⟩ would become a fricative, parallel to the relationship between ⟨v⟩ and ⟨ʋ⟩
w̸ w with stroke compressed labial–velar approximant ɣ̞ᵝ or w᫦ used by Monzón & Seneff (1984) for some Nahuatl dialects[78][5]: 192 
𝼑 l with fishhook alveolar lateral flap ɺ historical alternate used in transcriptions before the official adoption of ⟨ɺ⟩ by the IPA;[79] also in the Anthropos phonetic alphabet
𝼈 turned r with long leg and retroflex hook retroflex lateral flap ɭ̆ para-IPA, a combination of ⟨ɺ⟩ and ⟨ɻ⟩;[79] used by Ball for AddPhon in 2025[19]
ᶑ d with hook and tail voiced retroflex implosive para-IPA, a combination of ⟨ɗ⟩ and ⟨ɖ⟩; common, but not explicitly approved in IPA[80]
ᶘ ᶚ esh and ezh with retroflex hook laminal retroflex fricatives ʂ̻ ʐ̻ or ʂ̠ ʐ̠ used by Laver (1994) for Polish ⟨sz ż⟩ and Russian ⟨ш ж⟩; described as retroflex palato-alveolar by Diehl (1995), which may be impossible to pronounce according to Ladefoged[81]
k′, t′, etc. prime palatalization kʲ, tʲ, etc. traditional Irish phonology transcription
k', t', etc. apostrophe traditional Russian phonology transcription; also common in X-SAMPA
k’, t’, etc. right single quotation mark fortis consonants or faucalized voice k͈, t͈, etc. used by some Koreanists for fortis sounds, where the distinction with lenis is not one of voicing;[82] alternatively, interpreted as faucalized phonation; see Korean phonology § Tense
K, T, etc. uppercase letters
k*, t*, etc. asterisk
* syntactic gemination trigger used in some Italian dictionaries at the end of words which trigger syntactic gemination. Not typically transcribed as simple gemination ⟨ː⟩; see syntactic gemination
k῾, t῾, or kʽ, tʽ, etc. Greek dasia or modifier letter reversed comma weak aspiration seen in the charts of 1926 and 1949[17] (less common variant)
kʻ, tʻ, etc. modifier letter turned comma seen in the charts of 1921 through 1951 (more common variant)
k˂, t˂, etc. modifier less than arrow voiceless implosives ɠ̊, ɗ̥, etc.  Diacritic intended to be placed on standard voiceless plosives, occasional usage by several authors;[5]: 240  also proposed in Pullum (1990)[83] and the subsequent Further Report (1990)[84]
p←, t←, or p ⃖, t ⃖, etc. modifier left pointer arrow click consonants ʘ, ǃ, etc. Diacritic intended to be placed on standard consonants; used by Smalley (1963) and Samarin (1967)[5]: 243 
ʦ ʣ ʧ ʤ ʨ ʥ ligatures affricates t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ formerly acceptable variants[5]: 180 
𝼗 𝼒 ligatures with palatal hook or curly-tail palatalized affricates t͡ʃʲ d͡ʒʲ
or
t͡ɕ d͡ʑ		 historical, para-IPA[79]
ꭧ ꭦ 𝼜 𝼙 ligatures with retroflex hook retroflex affricates ʈ͡ʂ̺ ɖ͡ʐ̺ ʈ͡ʂ̻ ɖ͡ʐ̻
or
ʈ͡ʂ ɖ͡ʐ ʈ͡ʂ̠ ɖ͡ʐ̠
ā, ī, ū, etc. macron long vowel aː, iː, uː, etc. typically a mistake, but used by some authors
a:, i:, u:, etc. colon
a̔, e̔, etc. rough breathing mark breathy voiced vowel (h-colored) a̤ / aʱ, e̤ / eʱ, etc. brief usage in 1949;[17] not in subsequent charts
◌̡ palatal hook palatalization ◌ʲ Typically used in the transcription of Slavic languages such as Russian; retired in 1989
◌, comma Used by Slavicists[5]: 250 
◌̧ combining cedilla Used as a typographic substitute for the old palatal hook convention ⟨◌̡⟩
lowered ◌̞ Used by Brugmann (1904)[5]: 262 
◌̢ retroflex hook retroflexion used on consonants when no precomposed character exists
r-colored vowels ɚ, ɝ, ◌˞ superseded in 1989
schwa with right hook Used by Kenyon until 1935,[85] historical variant in IPA;[18] in the Unicode Pipeline, provisionally assigned[86]
reversed epsilon with right hook historical variant in IPA[18]
ь Cyrillic soft sign epenthetic schwa ◌ᵊ Used in Indo-European studies for schwa secundum[5]: 21 
◌˖, ◌˗ modifier letters plus and minus advanced, retracted ◌̟ / ◌᫈, ◌̠ / ◌᫢ replaced in 1989; the minus may have serifs, as in ⟨ ɪ ⟩, to distinguish it from a hyphen;[17] now used to avoid a descender, ascender, or another diacritic
◌꭪, ◌꭫ modifier letters left- and right-tack ◌̘ / ◌᫠, ◌̙ / ◌᫡ retired in 1912; now used to avoid a descender, ascender, or another diacritic, and sometimes seen with their modern values of advanced and retracted tongue root
◌˔, ◌˕ modifier letters up- and down-tack raised, lowered ◌̝ / ◌᷵, ◌̞ / ◌᫛ replaced in 1989; now used to avoid a descender, ascender, or another diacritic
◌͔, ◌͕ combining left and right arrowhead below proposed in 1925,[51] rejected[52]
◌˂ modifier less than arrow fronted ◌̟ Occasional usage by several authors[5]: 240 
◌͔ combining less than arrow below
◌˃ modifier greater than arrow retracted

◌̠


◌͕ combining greater than arrow below
pulmonic ingressive ◌↓ Diacritic intended to be placed on standard consonants and vowels; used by Fuller (1990) and Traill (1991)[5]: 242 
◌˓, ◌˒ modifier letters left and right half ring less-rounded, more-rounded ◌̜ / ◌͑, ◌̹ / ◌͗ replaced in 1989; now used to avoid a descender, ascender, or another diacritic
◌ᶹ superscript v with hook labialization (compressed) ◌ᵝ indicates labiodentalization in VoQS; used in some language studies e.g. Swedish and Japanese; recommended in the 1999 Handbook for roundedness lacking both protrusion and velarization[87]
◌ᷩ combining Latin beta above used to avoid implication of a diphthong
◌͍ ◌⃡ combining left–right arrow below and above extIPA, but intended for spread lips rather than compression
◌ᫀ combining turned w below may also be used to indicate voiceless labialization ⟨◌ꭩ⟩,[88] instead of compression[89]
◌᫦ ◌᫧ combining double arch below and above added to Unicode in 2025 with this as its intended usage, but not explicitly supported in IPA[89]
◌̫ ◌᫇ combining inverted double arch below and above labialization (protruded) ◌ʷ withdrawn 1989
◌ᪿ ◌ᷱ combining w below and above used in some sources, but the rounded version (double arch) is the standard[89]
◌̨
ogonek

 nasalization ◌̃ proposed in 1925,[51] rejected;[52] sometimes seen to avoid clash with tone ascender diacritics; used by Americanists
lowered ◌̞ replaced in 1989; typographic substitutes for ⟨◌̜⟩, which was the intended character (only the adjacent modifier ⟨◌˓⟩ was used for less-rounded at the time)[17]
◌̦ combining reversed comma below
◌᪷ combining open mark below
proposed in 1989 for approximated fricatives; supported in preliminary voting,[18] but ultimately rejected in favor of the modern diacritic
◌̭ combining circumflex below raised ◌̝ proposed in 1989 for fricated approximants, rejected[18]
◌̣ underdot replaced in 1989
retroflexion ◌̢ early historical charts
whispered never IPA, but picked up by VoQS
◌̦ combining comma below appears only in the 1921 chart
◌̇ overdot palatalization ◌ʲ withdrawn 1976
‌̚◌ (◌˹) open corner release/burst listed in the 1999 Handbook as IPA number 490 and AFII code E218,[90] but never adopted into Unicode
◌⸋ raised box unreleased ◌̚ proposed in 1925,[51] rejected;[52] used where IPA ⟨◌̚⟩ would get confused with the corners used to indicate change of pitch in the Japanese pitch accent system
◌° or ◌˚ degree sign or modifier ring Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
◌ˉ modifier minus
◌⹁ reversed comma Proposed in 1949, rejected[17][5]: 250 
◌˃ modifier greater than arrow Used by some Americanists, such as Dunn (1995)[91]
◌᷂ combining snake below lenis ◌͉ used by Americanists
◌ʱ modifier h with hook breathy voice or voiced aspiration ◌̤ implicit, equivalent in the IPA
◌ˀ modifier glottal stop creaky voice or glottalization ◌̰
combining double tilde pharyngealization ◌ˤ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
◌𐞴 modifier reversed glottal stop with stroke pharyngealization or epiglottalization ◌ˤ used by Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996)[92] and Esling et al. (2019)[93]
strident vowel used by Ladefoged & Maddieson (1990),[94] Exter (2008),[95] and Esling et al. (2019)[93] (overlap with epiglottalization)
◌᷽ combining double tilde below used by Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996)[96]
◌͌ combining double tilde above velopharyngeal release ◌𐞐 (◌ᶠᵑ) former extIPA, replaced in 2024
◌͋ combining homothetic nareal fricative ◌̾
◌_◌ underscore linking mark ◌‿◌ Proposed in 1989, rejected[18]
¹, ², etc. superscript digits pitch accents ˈ◌̌, ˈ◌̂ or ˈ◌̂, ˈ◌̌ used in Swedish and Norwegian transcriptions
tonal accents ◌́, ◌̌, ◌̀, ◌̂ or ◌̋, ◌᷄, ◌᷉, ◌̂ or similar, or Chao tone letters used by Sinologists; see tone number
ˉ◌, ˗◌, ˍ◌ Modifier high, mid and low macron behind high, mid and low-level tone or intonation ◌́, ◌̄, ◌̀
or
˦ ꜓, ˧ ꜔, ˨ ꜕		 replaced in 1989
˭◌, ₌◌ Modifier high and low equals sign behind extra-high and extra-low level tone or intonation ◌̋, ◌̏
or
˥ ꜒, ˩ ꜖
ˋ◌, ˴◌, ˎ◌ Modifier high, mid and low grave behind falling or high falling, mid falling and low falling tone or intonation ◌᷇, ◌᷆
or
˥˧ ꜒꜔, ˦˨ ꜓꜕, ˧˩ ꜔꜖
ˊ◌, ˏ◌ Modifier high and low acute behind high rising and low rising tone or intonation ◌᷄, ◌᷅
or
˧˥ ꜔꜒, ˨˦ ꜕꜓, ˩˧ ꜖꜔
ˇ◌, ˬ◌ Modifier high and low caron behind high dipping and low dipping (falling-rising) tone or intonation ◌᷉
or
˥˧˥ ꜒꜔꜒, ˦˨˦ ꜓꜕꜓, ˧˩˧ ꜔꜖꜔
ˆ◌, ꞈ◌ Modifier high and low circumflex behind peaking (rising-falling) tone or intonation ◌᷈
or
˧˥˨ ꜔꜒꜕, ˨˦˨ ꜕꜓꜕, ˩˧˩ ꜖꜔꜖
˜◌, ˷◌ Modifier high and low tilde behind "wavy" tone or intonation proposed in 1925,[51] rejected[52]
˙◌, ·◌, .◌ Modifier high, mid and low dot behind atonic (unaccented) syllable with high, mid, and low pitch; respectively used by Chao (1927)[97]
◌̗, ◌̖ combining acute and grave below lower-pitched rising / falling tone contour for languages that distinguish multiple rising or falling tones

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 Miller, Kirk (2024), L2/24-171: Miscellaneous historical and para-IPA modifier letters (PDF)
  2. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 76–77. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  3. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 313–314. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  4. ↑ Mattes, Larry; Omark, Donald (1984). Speech and Language Assessment for the Bilingual Handicapped. San Diego: College-Hill Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780933014015.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William A. (2013) [1996]. Phonetic Symbol Guide (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-92488-5.
  6. ↑ Doke, Clement M. (1925). "An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhũ̬꞉ Bushman of the North-West Kalahari". Bantu Studies. 2: 129–166. doi:10.1080/02561751.1923.9676181.
  7. ↑ Laver, John (1994). Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge University Press. p. 312. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139166621. ISBN 0-521-45655-X.
  8. ↑ Sedláček, Kamil (1967). "The Law of Phonetic Change in Initial Clusters in Common Sino-Tibetan". Monumenta Serica. 26: 24. doi:10.1080/02549948.1967.11744953. JSTOR 40725837.
  9. ↑ Luo Changpei (罗常培); Wang Jun (王均) (2002) [1957]. 普通语音学纲要 [= Outline of general phonetics]. 商务印书馆.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Sun Hongkai (孙宏开); Jiang Di (江荻) (2004). "描写中国语言使用的国际音标及附加符号". Minzu Yuwen (民族语文). 1: 47–52.
  11. ↑ Daniel, Gya; Blench, Roger (2008). Phonology of the Rigwe language (PDF). pp. 6, 13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2025-05-28.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Everson, Michael (2002), L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS (PDF)
  13. ↑ Olson, Kenneth S. (2022-05-05). "The Nonexistence of the Plain Bilabial Trill Phoneme". Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America. 7 (1): 5239. doi:10.3765/plsa.v7i1.5239.
  14. ↑ Rangelov, Tihomir; Walworth, Mary; Barbour, Julie (28 July 2023). "A multifaceted approach to understanding unexpected sound change: The bilabial trills of Vanuatu's Malekula Island". Diachronica. 40 (3): 384–432. doi:10.1075/dia.21051.ran. hdl:10289/15510.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ball, Martin J. (1987). "Linguo-Labials Revisited: The PRDS Solution". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 17 (2): 115–117. doi:10.1017/S0025100300003315. JSTOR 44525968.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Passy, Paul (1911). "desizjɔ̃ ɔfisjɛl". Le Maître Phonétique. 26 (5/6): 90. JSTOR 44701381.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 International Phonetic Association (1949). The principles of the International Phonetic Association: being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages. pp. 14–19.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Henton, Caroline (1988). "5. Individual Symbols and Diacritics". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 18 (2): 85–94. doi:10.1017/s0025100300003686. JSTOR 44526005.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Ball, Martin J. (2025). "Additional Phonetic Symbols for the Transcription of Typical and Atypical Speech". Journal of Connected Speech. 1 (1): 106–119. doi:10.3138/jcspeech.29303.
  20. ↑ Weeks, Raymond (1906). "ə fonɛtik ælfəbɛt fɔr iŋgliʃ". Le Maître Phonétique. 21 (2/3): 32–33. JSTOR 44703052.
  21. ↑ Joint Committee on a Phonetic English Alphabet; National Educational Association (U.S.); Modern Language Association of America; American Philological Association (1904), Report of a Joint Committee representing the National Educational Association, the American Philological Association, and the Modern Language Association of America: on the subject of a phonetic English alphabet, New York: Joint Committee on a Phonetic English Alphabet, pp. 1–53, hdl:2027/umn.31951002019575v
  22. ↑ Weeks (1906), p. 32[20] in reference to Joint Committee (1904), pp. 17, 36–37[21]
  23. 1 2 3 Tadadjeu, Maurice; Sadembouo, Etienne (1984) [1979], Alphabet Générale des Langues Camerounaises (PDF), Departement des Langues Africaines et Linguistique, Cameroon: Université de Yaoundé, archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-10-14
  24. 1 2 3 4 Association Phonétique Internationale (1931). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième Série. 9 (35): 40–42. JSTOR 44704452.
  25. ↑ Asmus Freytag; Rick McGowan; Ken Whistler (2024-04-30). "UTN #27: Known anomalies in Unicode Character Names".
  26. ↑ Everson, Michael (2008), L2/08-428: Exploratory proposal to encode Germanicist, Nordicist, and other phonetic characters in the UCS (PDF)
  27. ↑ Miller, Kirk; Rees, Neil (2021), L2/21-155: Unicode request for legacy Malayalam (PDF)
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ball, Martin; Rahilly, Joan (2011). "The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 41 (2): 231–237. doi:10.1017/S0025100311000107. JSTOR 44527032.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Ball, Martin; Rahilly, Joan; Lowry, Orla; Bessell, Nicola; Lee, Alice (2020). Phonetics for Speech Pathology. Communication Disorders and Clinical Linguistics (3rd ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1781791790.
  30. ↑ Jacquerye, Denis Moyogo; Miller, Kirk (2025), L2/25-077: Unicode request for w with palatal hook (PDF)
  31. ↑ Olson, Kenneth; Mielke, Jeff; Sanicas-Daguman, Josephine; Pebly, Carol Jean; Paterson III, Hugh (2010). "The phonetic status of the (inter)dental approximant". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (2): 210–211. doi:10.1017/S0025100309990296. JSTOR 44527015.
  32. 1 2 3 Recasens, Daniel (2011). "Response to Martin Ball & Joan Rahilly, 'The Symbolization of Central Approximants in the IPA', JIPA 41 (2011), 231-237". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 41 (2): 239–242. doi:10.1017/S0025100311000119. JSTOR 44527033.
  33. 1 2 Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio (December 2004). "Problems in the classification of approximants". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 34 (2): 201–210. doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732.
  34. ↑ Association Phonétique Internationale (1900). "Exposé des Principes de L'Association Phonétique Internationale". Le Maître Phonétique. 15: 7. JSTOR 44749210.
  35. ↑ Association Phonétique Internationale (1908). "Exposé des Principes de L'Association Phonétique Internationale". Le Maître Phonétique. 23: 12. JSTOR 44707916.
  36. ↑ Association Phonétique Internationale (1921). L'Ecriture phonétique internationale : exposé populaire avec application au français et à plusieurs autres langues (2e ed.). p. 6.
  37. 1 2 Ball, Martin J.; Howard, Sara J.; Miller, Kirk (2018). "Revisions to the extIPA chart". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 48 (2): 159–163. doi:10.1017/S0025100317000147. JSTOR 26502601.
  38. ↑ Association Phonétique Internationale (1928). "desizjɔ̃ ofisjɛl". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième Série. 6 (23): 51–53. JSTOR 44704266.
  39. 1 2 Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2025), The primary palatals in Proto-Iranic: Still palatal?, pp. 21–32
  40. 1 2 Catford, J. C. (1977). "Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus". Annual Review of Anthropology. 6: 290–291. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.06.100177.001435. JSTOR 2949334.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Roach, P. J. (1989). "Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention: INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 19 (2): 72. JSTOR 44526032.
  42. 1 2 3 4 Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011), L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS (PDF)
  43. 1 2 Association Phonétique Internationale (1947). "Chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième Série. 25 (88). JSTOR 44748304.
  44. 1 2 3 Ball, Martin J. (2026). "Transcription of Approximants". The Phonetics and Phonology of Approximants. University of Toronto Press. pp. 115–128. ISBN 978-1-4875-2886-7.
  45. ↑ Doke, Clement M. (1931). A Comparative Study in Shona Phonetics. Vol. 1. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand Press.
  46. ↑ "SpecGram—"Double-Dot Wide O / Nasal-Ingressive Voiceless Velar Trill"—by J–––– J––––––—Reviewed by Jonathan van der Meer". specgram.com.
  47. ↑ Catford, J. C. (1982) [1977]. Fundamental Problems in Phonetics. Indiana University Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-85224-437-1.
  48. ↑ Miller, Kirk (2025), L2/25-114: Unicode request for letters with double tilde overlay (PDF)
  49. 1 2 3 Constable, Peter (2003), L2/03-190: Proposal to Encode Additional Phonetic Symbols in the UCS (PDF)
  50. ↑ Miller, Kirk (2021), L2/21-041: Unicode request for additional para-IPA letters (PDF)
  51. 1 2 3 4 5 Jespersen, Otto; Pedersen, Holger (1926). Phonetic Transcription And Transliteration: Proposals of the Copenhagen Conference, April 1925 (Report). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  52. 1 2 3 4 5 Association Phonétique Internationale (1927). "desizjɔ̃ dy kɔ̃sɛːj rəlativmɑ̃ o prɔpozisjɔ̃ d la kɔ̃ferɑ̃ːs də *kɔpnag". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième Série. 5 (18): 13–18. JSTOR 44704201.
  53. ↑ "Romanization game #2 - Page 26 - The CBB". Archived from the original on 2025-04-27. Retrieved 2025-08-30.
  54. ↑ "Romanization game #2 - Page 31 - The CBB". Archived from the original on 2025-04-26. Retrieved 2025-08-30.
  55. ↑ Wells, John C. (2008-02-27). "An impossible sound". John Wells's phonetic blog archive. Archived from the original on 2025-02-17.
  56. 1 2 Lee-Kim, Sang-Im (December 2014). "Revisiting Mandarin 'apical vowels': An articulatory and acoustic study". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 44 (3): 261–282. doi:10.1017/S0025100314000267. JSTOR 26352122.
  57. 1 2 Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (June 2003). "Standard Chinese (Beijing)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (1): 109–112. doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208.
  58. 1 2 Edmondson, Jerold A.; Esling, John H.; Ziwo, Lama (拉玛兹偓) (April 2017). "Nuosu Yi (Illustrations of the IPA)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 47 (1): 87–97. doi:10.1017/S0025100315000444.
  59. 1 2 Wells, John (2007-03-15). "Chinese apical vowels". John Wells's phonetic blog. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24.
  60. ↑ von Schneidemesser, Luanne; Lawyer, Lewis; Whistler, Ken; Anderson, Deborah (2012), L2/12-266R: Proposal for Two Phonetic Characters (PDF)
  61. ↑ Bailey, Charles-James N. (1976). "Some additions to the phonetic alphabet". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 6 (1): 32–34. doi:10.1017/s002510030000147x. JSTOR 44525830.
  62. ↑ Federico Albano Leoni; Pietro Maturi (2002) [1995]. Manuale di fonetica (3 ed.). Carocci editore. ISBN 88-430-2127-3.
  63. ↑ Park, Jongdeok (박종덕) (2004). "/ㅡ/와 /ㅓ/의 합류 시기 및 원인 -경상도 방언을 대상으로-" [The cause and period of the merger of /ㅡ/ and /ㅓ/]. Korean Language Research (한말연구) (in Korean) (14). Korean Language Research Circle (한말연구학회): 230–231, 243, 245. eISSN 2799-8983.
  64. ↑ Kim, Bo Mi (김보미) (2016). 부산 지역어 단모음 /ㅡ/와 /ㅓ/의 세대 간 차이 [Generational Differences between /ㅡ/ and /ㅓ/ in Busan dialect]. Department of Korean Language and Literature, Graduate School (대학원 국어국문학과) (Thesis) (in Korean). Busan, South Korea: Pukyong National University. pp. vi, 11–12, 34, 75.
  65. ↑ Catford, J. C. (1990). "A proposal concerning central vowels". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 20 (2): 26–28. doi:10.1017/S0025100300004230. JSTOR 44526804.
  66. 1 2 "What's in a pronunciation? British and U.S. transcription models in the OED: Q&A". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. 2023. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023.
  67. 1 2 "British English Pronunciations: Key to Pronunciation". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2025-01-24.
  68. 1 2 3 SIL International (2004), L2/04-132: Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS (PDF)
  69. ↑ For example in Wilhelm Viëtor, Wie ist die Aussprache des Deutschen zu lehren?, 1906.
  70. ↑ Roberts, David; Boyd, Ginger; Merz, Johannes; Vydrin, Valentin (2020). "Quantifying written ambiguities in tone languages: A comparative study of Elip, Mbelime, and Eastern Dan". Language Documentation & Conservation. 14: 108–138. hdl:10125/24915.
  71. ↑ Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2, 0-52128541-0.
  72. ↑ "Guide to Pronunciation" (PDF). Merriam-Webster.
  73. 1 2 Nicolaidis, Katerina (2024), L2/24-049: Unicode support for historical and para-IPA letters (PDF)
  74. ↑ Vance, Timothy J. (2008). The Sounds of Japanese. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–61. ISBN 978-0-5216-1754-3.
  75. ↑ Labrune, Laurence (2012). The Phonology of Japanese. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199545834.001.0001. ISBN 9780191738562.
  76. ↑ Olson, Kenneth S; Hajek, John (1999). "The phonetic status of the labial flap". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 29 (2): 112. doi:10.1017/S0025100300006484. JSTOR 44526239.
  77. ↑ "IPA (SIL) Keyboard Help", help.keyman.com
  78. ↑ Monzón, Cristina; Seneff, Andrew Roth (1984). "Notes on the Nahuatl Phonological Change kʷ → b". International Journal of American Linguistics. 50 (4): 456–462. doi:10.1086/465855. JSTOR 1265405.
  79. 1 2 3 Miller, Kirk (2020), L2/20-125: Unicode request for a ligature, expected IPA retroflex letters and similar hooks & tails. (PDF)
  80. ↑ International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166, 179. ISBN 0-52163751-1.
  81. ↑ Constable, Peter (2004), L2/04-046: Revised Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Retroflex Hook in the UCS (PDF), p. 7
  82. ↑ Lee, Hyunjung; Jongman, Allard (2016). "A Diachronic Investigation of the Vowels and Fricatives in Korean: An Acoustic Comparison of the Seoul and South Kyungsang Dialects". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 46 (2): 157–184. doi:10.1017/S0025100316000013. JSTOR 26352298.
  83. ↑ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (1990). "Remarks on the 1989 Revision of the International Phonetic Alphabet". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 20 (1): 35. doi:10.1017/S0025100300004047. JSTOR 44526784.
  84. ↑ International Phonetic Association (1990). "Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 20 (2): 22–24. doi:10.1017/S0025100300004205. JSTOR 44526801.
  85. ↑ Kenyon, John (1929). "The International Phonetic Alphabet". American Speech. 4 (4): 324–325. doi:10.2307/452075. JSTOR 452075.
  86. ↑ Miller, Kirk; Rees, Neil (2025), L2/25-155: Unicode request for schwa with right hook (PDF)
  87. ↑ International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-52163751-1.
  88. ↑ Everson, Michael (2019), L2/19-075R: Proposal to add six phonetic characters for Scots to the UCS (PDF)
  89. 1 2 3 Miller, Kirk (2024), L2/24-080: Unicode request for IPA diacritics above and one below (PDF)
  90. ↑ International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press. pp. 173, 182. ISBN 0-52163751-1.
  91. ↑ Dunn, John Asher (1995). Sm'algyax: A Reference Dictionary and Grammar for the Tsimshian Language. University of Washington Press & Sealaska Heritage Foundation. p. vii. ISBN 9780295974194 – via Internet Archive.
  92. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 365. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  93. 1 2 Esling, John H.; Moisik, Scott R.; Benner, Allison; Crevier-Buchman, Lise (2019). Voice Quality: The Laryngeal Articulator Model. Cambridge University Press. pp. 168–169. doi:10.1017/9781108696555. ISBN 9781108696555.
  94. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (April 1990). "Vowels of the world's languages". Journal of Phonetics. 18 (2): 93–122. doi:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30396-1.
  95. ↑ Exter, Mats (2008-11-19). Properties of the Anterior and Posterior Click Closures in Nǀuu. Institut für Linguistik (Thesis). Universität zu Köln. pp. 50–54.
  96. ↑ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 310–313. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
  97. ↑ Chao, Yuen Ren (1927). "tʃaɪniːz (piˑkɪŋiːz)". Le Maître Phonétique. Troisième Série. 5 (20): 45–46. JSTOR 44704218.

See also

[edit]
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