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Umayyad army
جند بني أمية
The Umayyad Caliphate, c. 750
Active661–750
CountryUmayyad Caliphate
AllegianceUmayyad dynasty
TypeArmy and navy
RoleMilitary forces of the caliphate
Size
  • Syrian rolls: c. 175,000 names[1]
  • Damascus jund: c. 45,000 names[1]
Principal centres
Engagements
Commanders
Commander-in-chiefCaliph
Selected commanders

The Umayyad army was the military land force and naval force of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. It was the successor to some of conquest armies of the Rashidun Caliphate. The period is commonly divided into two. The Sufyanid period (661–684) and the Marwanid period (684–750). During these 89 years, the army formed from conquest-era provincial forces into a social-military system based on the Syrian ajnad, the Divan, regular payments, Arab tribal groups, garrison towns, annual raids and provincial military districts inside cities.[2][3][4]

Under Mu'awiya (r. 661–680 AD), the main strength of the army was the Syrian military districs known as the Ahl al-Sham. These troops were organised through the ajnad of Damascus, Hims, Palestine, Jordan and, from the late 7th century, Qinnasrin.[5][4] By the reign of the Marwanid al-Walid I, the Damascus jund alone is reported to have about 45,000 names. Blankinship estimates that the total Syrian rolls may have contained about 175,000, apart from forces in the Jazira.[1]

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus. Damascus was the political centre of the dynasty and the chief city of the Syrian military order.

Its main strengths were regular payment, Syrian cohesion, tribal recruitment and constant raid warfare. Its main tensions came from stipend disputes, Syrian-Iraqi rivalry, Umayyad-Hashimite rivalry, the status of mawali and Berber, and the growth of Qays–Yaman factionalism.[6][7][8]

Umayyads expanded the caliphate from the Atlantic and al-Andalus to Transoxiana and Sindh. Syria remained the centre. Under al-Hajjaj, Iraq became the main base for eastern campaigns. Khurasan became the decisive northeastern frontier. Ifriqiya and Qayrawan served the western advance towards Iberia and the Frankish realms . Egypt supplied revenue, grain and naval manpower against Byzantine.[9][10][11] By the reigns of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Marwan II, pressure on several frontiers, depletion of Syrian manpower, provincial rebellion and the rise of the Abbasid movement in Khurasan broke the old military order.[12][13] The final defeat came at the Battle of the Zab in 750, when Marwan II's Syrian and Jazirian army was destroyed by Abbasid Khurasani forces.[14][15][16]

History

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Background

[edit]

Umayyads inherited the conquest forces of the early caliphate.[17] Their armies used centre, wings, vanguard, rear guard, cavalry, infantry and standard-bearers.[18] Command usually went to men trusted by the state.[19] The ruling family came from Quraysh in western Arabia, but Umayyad power rested mainly on Syria. The Syrian Arabs included old settled and semi-settled groups, especially Kalb, Quda'a and other Yaman-linked tribes. They lived among established towns and villages, served on the Byzantine frontier, and formed the first military base of the dynasty.[20][4]

Iraq had a different tribal balance. Kufa and Basra drew many soldiers from Najd, eastern Arabia and the Gulf side, including Tamim, Bakr, Rabi`ah and other Mudar-linked groups. At Kufa, early soldiers and leading families were later joined by rawādif and new arrivals. By Uthman's time, these groups were said to be changing the social balance of the city and reducing the control of the older military elite.[21]

Under Uthman, Mu'awiya was instructed to settle Bedouins away from cities and villages on vacant lands. Groups such as Tamim, Qays and Asad were settled eastward in the Jazira near al-Raqqa and other frontier areas.[22]

The conquest state also created a register of military payment. Soldiers in the dīwān received ʿaṭāʾ, graded by service and other priorities such as tribal affiliation, seniority, etc. Early converts and veterans received higher payments, while later arrivals entered lower categories.[23] Taxes from conquered lands financed the garrison soldiers of Wasit, Kufa, Basra in Iraq.[24][2]

The Great Mosque of Kufa. Kufa was a garrison town where early soldiers, later arrivals and tribal leaders competed for pay, rank and influence.

Local specialists and allied peoples also served the army. Persian groups such as the Asawira, Christian Arabs, Copts, Armenians, Berbers, Slavs, Samaritans and others served as soldiers, diplomats, sailors, guides, spies, couriers, workmen and auxiliaries.[25][26]

Establishment

[edit]

After the death of Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, Mu'awiya I assumed Syria. Mu'awiya governed Syria for two decades Under Umar and Uthman, and launched naval campaigns and annual summer raids against Byzantium. Syrian military support allowed him to challenge Ali and his Iraqi followers. At the Battle of Siffin in 657, Mu'awiya's Syrian army fought Ali's Iraqi army; Muslim narrative tradition reports that the Syrians raised Qur'anic sheets or fragments on spears, which forced arbitration and weakening Ali's political position.[27] After Ali's death, Mu'awiya entered Kufa in 661 and secured recognition as caliph through negotiation.[28]

Syrian Arabs

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The Syrian army had a distinct social base. In Iraq, Arab soldiers lived mainly in new garrison towns such as Kufa and Basra. In Syria, many Arab groups lived among older towns, villages, estates and tribal districts inherited from Byzantine rule. This gave the Syrian army a more provincial and urban and dynastic character, tied to local society, village revenue and the northern war frontier.[5]

The early Umayyads relied especially on Kalb and related Quda'a groups in Syria. These tribes belonged to the older Arab population of the Levant and had long lived inside the Byzantine rule.[29][30]

This Syrian base differed from the later Qays, Mudar, Tamim and Asad elements, whose main recruitment zones lay farther east in central and eastern Arabia, Iraq and the Jazira. After the conquests, settlement, pay and land turned these tribal names into military factions.[31][32]

Syrian ajnad

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The Umayyads first preserved a loyal Syrian military base. Syria was divided into ajnad, or military districts: Damascus, Hims, Palestine and Jordan. Qinnasrin was added around 680 as northern warfare against Byzantium grew more important.[5][33]

Each jund defended its region, supplied soldiers, collected taxes, and used local revenue to maintain them.[34] Their loyalty helped Mu'awiya defeat his Iraqi rivals, and later Syrian troops served as garrisons in difficult provinces such as Iraq.[35][36]

Syrian troops became the main military support of the Umayyad house. They fought on the Byzantine frontier, guarded Iraq, served in civil wars and formed the caliph's trusted provincial army.[6][37]

Provincial armies

[edit]
Ruins associated with Wasit, the garrison founded by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf between Kufa and Basra.

The Syrian army stood beside strong provincial armies. In the early Sufyanid period, governors relied on local tribal soldiers, a small shurṭa, and tribal leaders known as ashrāf.[38] These leaders connected governors with tribesmen and shaped mobilisation, discipline and pay.[39]

Iraq was the main base for eastern conquest. Kufa and Basra supplied armies for Khurasan, Sistan, Sindh and Transoxiana.[40][41] Kufa was organised into sevenths, later quarters under Ziyad ibn Abihi, while Basra was divided into fifths.[42][43] These were urban, tribal and military divisions.

Iraqi soldiers claimed land revenue as a tribal right. Under al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Syrian troops entered Iraq to discipline local armies and suppress revolt.[6][44] The foundation of Wasit marked the Syrian managerial city and military base in Iraq.[45][46]

Frontier and naval forces

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The Umayyad frontier was a chain of active war zones. The Jazira grew important because it guarded the northern frontier and supplied many Arab recruits. Its districts, including Diyar Mudar, Diyar Rabi'a and Diyar Bakr, reflected strong tribal divisions.[47] War with Byzantium gave Jaziran troops prestige, later they became Marwan II's main power base.[48][49]

The Umayyads also built a Mediterranean fleet. Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship under Uthman and the Byzantine threat to Alexandria encouraged naval units.[50] Egypt supplied sailors, arsenals and shipyards, while major bases included Tyre, Acre, Beirut, Alexandria and later Tunis.[50][11] Many sailors were Christians, especially Egyptian Copts, who served for wages and provisions against the Byzantines.[51]

Marwanid consolidation

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The Marwanid period brought the strongest consolidation of Umayyad military power. After the Second Fitna, Marwan I secured Syria at the Battle of Marj Rahit in 684, and Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan rebuilt the dynasty from Damascus. Abd al-Malik defeated Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr at the Battle of Maskin in Iraq in 691, then sent al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf against Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr in the Siege of Mecca (692).[52].

Al-Hajjaj's rule in Iraq became a major stage in military centralisation. In 75/694, he restored discipline among the soldiers of Kufa and Basra, who had resisted further campaigns against the Kharijites.[53] He relied on Wasit, the Syrian garrisons and commanders such as al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra, who fought the Azariqa Kharijites under Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a.[54][55]

The same pressure produced revolts. The revolt of Abd Allah ibn al-Jarud in 76/695 centred on pay and military service.[56] The larger Ibn al-Ash'ath revolt of 700–701 began during a campaign in Sistan and Zabulistan, when Iraqi troops opposed distance from home, harsh conditions and al-Hajjaj's authority.[57][58] The rebels were defeated by al-Hajjaj and the Syrian army at the Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim. Their defeat confirmed Syrian-backed Umayyad control over Iraq.[59]

Expansion and deployment

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The caliphate around 740, near the height of Umayyad military expansion.

The Marwanid army expanded on several fronts. In the east, Qutayba ibn Muslim campaigned in Transoxiana, while Muhammad ibn al-Qasim conquered Sindh.[60][61] In the west, Uqba ibn Nafi and later governors used Qayrawan as a base in North Africa.[62][63] In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed into Iberia with about 15,000 men, mostly Berbers under Arab command, followed by Musa ibn Nusayr.[64][60]

The northern frontier remained active. Under Mu'awiya I, Muslim forces occupied Rhodes and Crete and attacked Constantinople.[65][63] Under Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, the Umayyads launched the Siege of Constantinople (717–718).[66][67] Under Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, raids continued until the massive defeat at the Battle of Akroinon in 740.[68][69]

Late Umayyad crisis

[edit]

Blankinship describes the early caliphate as a "jihad state" whose power depended on repeated campaigning and mass mobilisation.[70] Under Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, this system became overextended. The caliphate fought across the Byzantine frontier, Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sijistan, Sindh, North Africa, al-Andalus and the Frankish frontier.[71] Each front required money, horses, commanders, garrisons and replacements. Repeated defeats strained the treasury and depleted the trusted Syrian forces.[72]

Syrian manpower was the centre of the crisis. The Umayyads still used troops from Iraq, Khurasan, the Jazira, Ifriqiya and al-Andalus, but the old Syrian army remained the dynasty's main reserve. When Syrian units were killed, scattered or sent far from Syria, the caliphs lost the force that usually held the provinces together.

The Berber Revolt was especially damaging. In 741, a Syrian force under Kulthum ibn Iyad al-Qushayri was destroyed in North Africa.[73][74] Blankinship argues that this scattered the last major Syrian Yamani forces to distant frontiers.[75] Losses against the Türgesh in Transoxiana and the defeat at the Battle of Akroinon in 740 also killed most of the umayyad forces.

Marwan II shifted from old Syria to the Jazira forces. He had fought the Byzantines and Khazars, governed the Jazira, and relied mainly on Jaziran Qaysi frontier troops.[49] After taking Damascus from Ibrahim ibn al-Walid and his Kalbi faction in 744 during the third fitna, he moved his court to Harran, a Qaysi centre.[76] The Syrian army itself had split into hostile Qaysi and Kalbi blocs.[77]

In Khurasan, the Hashimiyya and Abbasid movement used civilian discontent and army factionalism.[78] Abu Muslim raised the revolt near Merv and created a new Diwan order based on place of origin rather than tribalism.[79] Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i led Abbasid armies west through Rayy, Hamadan, Nihawand and Kufa.[80][81]

The decisive battle came at the Greater Zab in January 750. Marwan advanced from Harran with Syrian and Jazirian forces. The Abbasid army under Abd Allah ibn Ali used Khurasani infantry and a spear-wall formation.[14][16] Marwan's army broke, and the eastern Umayyad Caliphate collapsed.[15]

Units

[edit]

Syrian ajnad

[edit]

The Syrian ajnad were the main formations of the Umayyad army. Each jund drew pay, recruits and supplies from its district.[34] The principal districts were Damascus, Hims, Palestine, Jordan and Qinnasrin.[5] They linked soldiers, taxation, local elites and the caliph in Damascus. Damascus formed the political centre, while Hims and Qinnasrin guarded the northern frontier against the Byzantine Empire.

Provincial soldiers

[edit]

The provincial muqātila were enrolled fighting men in the Diwan order. They received fiscal Ata payments and served through tribal, urban and provincial groups.[82][83] In Iraq, the soldiers of Kufa and Basra claimed local revenue as a conquest right.[6] In Khurasan, Iraqi settlers carried tribal divisions eastward, and the same army later became the base of the Abbasid Revolution.[84][85]

Police and guards

[edit]

The shurṭa was the police and security force of governors. It enforced order, guarded officials, made arrests and supported political control.[86] The ḥaras was the personal guard of caliphs and commanders. It gave rulers a loyal body of armed men for processions, prayers, private meetings and palace security.

Auxiliaries and local troops

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The Umayyad army also used client, local and allied troops. The Asawira were Iranian cavalrymen from the former Sasanian military class and could receive high stipends.[25][87][88] Persian infantry, mawālī, Christian Arabs, Copts, Armenians, Berbers, Slavs, Samaritans and Mardaites served as soldiers, sailors, guides, spies, couriers, labourers and frontier auxiliaries.[26] Treaties could require local communities to provide transport, intelligence, supplies or border service.[89]

[edit]

The Umayyad navy operated from Syria, Egypt and the Mediterranean ports. Its bases included Tyre, Acre, Beirut, Alexandria and later Tunis.[50][90] Egypt supplied shipyards, arsenals, sailors and provisions.[11] Coptic sailors served as rowers, helmsmen and crewmen, often as part of Egypt's fiscal obligations.[51] The fleet supported raids, island campaigns and attacks on Constantinople.[50][91]

Recruitment and service

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Recruitment was organised mainly through Arab tribal groups. Tribal identity shaped residence, pay, mobilisation, command and discipline.[92][93] Units could follow clans, larger tribes or government-made divisions built from tribal blocks.[94]

Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, an Umayyad desert complex in Syria.

The Syrian army drew heavily on Arab groups long settled in the Levant, especially Kalb and Quda'a. These Syrian and western Arabian-linked groups supported the Sufyanid and early Marwanid caliphs. Central and eastern Arabian tribes, including Tamim, Asad, Qays and Mudar, were also important in Iraq, the Jazira and Khurasan.

Pay and supply

[edit]

The Umayyad army depended on cash pay, provisions and market supply.[95] The key institution was the Divan, first a list of soldiers entitled to revenue and later a military register, or dīwān al-jund.[2] Soldiers in the amṣār received service pay from taxation and conquered land revenue.[82]

Pay varied by status, province and precedence. Early veterans and elite groups received higher stipends than later arrivals. Iraq used silver dirhams, while Syria and Egypt used gold dinars.[87] The Asawira and some other Iranian soldiers could receive pay close to Arab soldiers.[87][25]

Equipment

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Umayyad fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, showing a mounted hunter. Palace art gives visual evidence for elite dress, weapons and mounted culture.

Umayyad equipment came from the mixed military world of the early caliphate. It used Arab, Byzantine, Sasanian, Iranian, Central Asian and local traditions.[96]

Common weapons included swords, spears, lances, daggers, bows, arrows and javelins. Infantry used spears, shields and bows. Cavalry used lances, swords and bows. Armour included mail, helmets, shields, padded clothing and sometimes scale or lamellar protection.[97]

Early Arab armies were often infantry-heavy. Archers and spear-armed cavalry worked together. Nicolle notes that early Islamic archery was often infantry-based and differed from later Turkish-style horse archery.[98]

Umayyad art from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, Qusayr Amra and Khirbat al-Mafjar shows mounted figures, archers, spears, belts, scabbards, helmets and elite dress.[97] At the Battle of the Zab, Khurasani infantry used a spear-wall against the Syrian charge.[14]

Strategy and tactics

[edit]
Fresco from Qusayr Amra, Umayyad elite life.

On the Byzantine frontier, it used annual raids, fortified routes, mountain passes and major expeditions.[99][100] In North Africa and al-Andalus, it relied heavily on Berber troops under Arab command.[101] In Transoxiana and the Caucasus, it fought mobile Türgesh and Khazar opponents.[102][103]

The army also enforced rule inside the caliphate. In 680, Husayn ibn Ali was stopped before reaching Kufa and killed at the Battle of Karbala.[104] In 683, Yazid I sent a Syrian army under Muslim ibn Uqba to the Hijaz. It defeated Medina at the Battle of al-Harra, then besieged Mecca under Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni; the Kaaba was damaged by fire.[105][63] In 692, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf besieged Mecca again, and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was killed.[106]

Legacy

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The Umayyad army shaped the military and political institutions of the early Islamic empire. It preserved the conquest-era system of garrison soldiers, stipends and tribal organisation, and under the Marwanids turned it into a more regular service army.[107]

The Abbasids inherited much of this military-fiscal system, especially the salaried Divan, but shifted the centre of power from the Syrian army to the Khurasani army.[108][109] The fall of the eastern Umayyads was therefore both a battlefield defeat and a transfer of military power from Syria to Khurasan.

Madinat al-Zahra, the palace-city founded by Abd al-Rahman III.

The Umayyad military tradition also continued in the west. After the Abbasid victory, Abd al-Rahman I founded the Emirate of Córdoba in al-Andalus. The western Umayyads inherited soldiers from the Arab jund groups, Berber forces, local converts, clients and frontier settlers.[60][110] Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, rulers such as Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II developed a larger court army that included Andalusi Arabs, Muladí, Berbers, Saqaliba and paid troops. The western Umayyad army defended the frontier with the Christian kingdoms, and internal revolts.

See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 3 Blankinship 1994, p. 50.
  2. 1 2 3 Kennedy 2001, pp. 59–63.
  3. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 35–39.
  4. 1 2 3 Blankinship 1994, pp. 47–50.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Hawting 2000, p. 38.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Kennedy 2001, pp. 63–78.
  7. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 53–55, 73–76, 102–109.
  8. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 472–480.
  9. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 38–42.
  10. ↑ Kennedy 2001, pp. 66–67.
  11. 1 2 3 Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 111–117.
  12. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 223–236.
  13. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 105–118.
  14. 1 2 3 Kennedy 2001, p. 51.
  15. 1 2 Hawting 2000, pp. 117–118.
  16. 1 2 Nicolle 2009, pp. 78–79.
  17. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 221–226.
  18. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 223–225.
  19. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 224–226.
  20. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 28–31, 38.
  21. ↑ Donner 1981, p. 232.
  22. ↑ Donner 1981, p. 248.
  23. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 226, 231.
  24. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 226–241.
  25. 1 2 3 Donner 1981, p. 257.
  26. 1 2 Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 83–111.
  27. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 28–30.
  28. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 24, 30–31.
  29. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 38, 53–55.
  30. ↑ Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 88–92.
  31. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 53–55.
  32. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 45–46.
  33. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 47–48.
  34. 1 2 Blankinship 1994, pp. 47–49.
  35. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 28–31, 66–67.
  36. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 47–50, 58–61.
  37. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 478–480.
  38. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 35–36.
  39. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 36.
  40. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 38–39.
  41. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 226–239.
  42. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 39.
  43. ↑ Donner 1981, p. 235.
  44. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 66–67.
  45. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 67.
  46. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 58–61.
  47. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 51–53.
  48. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 53–55.
  49. 1 2 Hawting 2000, pp. 96–103.
  50. 1 2 3 4 Nicolle 2009, p. 57.
  51. 1 2 Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 114–117.
  52. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 47–49.
  53. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 470–473.
  54. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 472–485.
  55. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 66–69.
  56. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 472–475.
  57. ↑ Sijpesteijn 2022, pp. 480–483, 492–493.
  58. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 67–69.
  59. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 69.
  60. 1 2 3 Hawting 2000, p. 8.
  61. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 69.
  62. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 7, 42.
  63. 1 2 3 Nicolle 2009, p. 68.
  64. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 71.
  65. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 42.
  66. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 72–73.
  67. ↑ Blankinship 1994, p. 84.
  68. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 83.
  69. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 168–170, 235.
  70. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 1–18.
  71. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 103–198.
  72. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 7–9, 223–236.
  73. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 209–218.
  74. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 76.
  75. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 218, 223–236.
  76. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 97–98.
  77. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 102–103.
  78. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 105–113.
  79. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 108–115.
  80. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 115–117.
  81. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 78.
  82. 1 2 Kennedy 2001, pp. 60–62.
  83. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 105.
  84. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 54, 105.
  85. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 61–64.
  86. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. xi, 35.
  87. 1 2 3 Kennedy 2001, pp. 61–62.
  88. ↑ Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 94–95.
  89. ↑ Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 101–111.
  90. ↑ Al-Qadi 2016, pp. 111–112.
  91. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 42, 72–73.
  92. ↑ Donner 1981, pp. 223–226, 258–262.
  93. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 42–46.
  94. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 42–44.
  95. ↑ Kennedy 2001, pp. 59, 82–88.
  96. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 26–28.
  97. 1 2 Nicolle 2009, pp. 26–30.
  98. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 28–30.
  99. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 42, 72–73, 83.
  100. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 168–170.
  101. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 68–71.
  102. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 83–85.
  103. ↑ Blankinship 1994, pp. 126–128, 170–176.
  104. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 50–51.
  105. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 47–48.
  106. ↑ Hawting 2000, p. 49.
  107. ↑ Kennedy 2001, pp. 76–88.
  108. ↑ Kennedy 2001, p. 78.
  109. ↑ Hawting 2000, pp. 108–118.
  110. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 71, 76.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Al-Qadi, Wadad (2016). "Non-Muslims in the Muslim Conquest Army in Early Islam". In Sijpesteijn, Petra M.; Cobb, Paul M. (eds.). Christians and Others in the Umayyad State. Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Near East. Vol. 1. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 83–127. ISBN 9781614910312.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. SUNY Series in Medieval Middle East History. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Donner, Fred M. (1981). The Early Islamic Conquests. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691053271.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Kennedy, Hugh N. (2001). The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Warfare and History. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-25092-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Nicolle, David (2009). The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632–750. Essential Histories. Vol. 71. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781846032738.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Sijpesteijn, Petra M. (2022). "Closing Ranks: Discipline and Loyalty in the Umayyad Army". Al-ʿUṣūr al-Wusṭā. 30: 469–499. doi:10.52214/uw.v30i.9935. hdl:1887/3589819.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
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