There are about 380,000 known species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000, produce seeds. They range in size from single cells to the tallest trees. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen. The sugars they produce by photosynthesis provide the energy for most of Earth's ecosystems, and other organisms, including animals, are herbivores or otherwise dependent on plant materials. (Full article...)
These are featured articles, which represent some of the best content on English Wikipedia.
Image 1
Bartlett's rātā (centre) in Te Paki
Metrosideros bartlettii, commonly known as Bartlett's rātā, is a rare species of tree in the family Myrtaceae. It is endemic to the Northland Region in New Zealand's North Island. Bartlett's rātā reaches a height of up to 30 metres (100 feet) with a trunk of 1–1.5 metres (3ft 3in– 4ft 11in) in diameter. The species is classified in the subgenusMetrosideros and is known for its distinct whitish, paper-like bark and small white-coloured flowers. Bartlett's rātā was first discovered in 1975 by the New Zealand botanist and schoolteacher John Bartlett, who accidentally discovered the species while searching for liverworts near Cape Reinga. It was first described by botanist John Dawson in a 1985 article in the New Zealand Journal of Botany.
Bartlett's rātā's range covers the northern tip of the Aupōuri Peninsula, in three dense forest remnants near Piwhane / Spirits Bay. Bartlett's rātā typically begins life as an epiphyte (growing on another plant); it inhabits lowland forests and is usually found growing near wet areas. A 2018 article by the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network documented 13 adult trees in the wild, a significant decrease from another research article in 2000 that documented 31 wild adult trees. The species has a high chance of becoming extinct in the wild unless immediate conservation measures are taken to stop its ongoing decline, which has been attributed to land use changes following human settlement and the introduction of common brushtail possums, which browse its buds, flowers, and shoots. Bartlett's rātā's conservation status was assessed by the IUCN Red List in 2013 as critically endangered, and its population trend was assessed as decreasing. (Full article...)
Image 2
Brachychiton rupestris (commonly known as the narrow-leaved bottle tree or Queensland bottle tree) is a tree in the family Malvaceae, endemic to the Australian state of Queensland. Described by Sir Thomas Mitchell and John Lindley in 1848, it earned its name from its bulbous trunk, which can be up to 3.5 metres (11ft) in diameter at breast height (DBH). Reaching around 10–25m (33–82ft) high, the Queensland bottle tree is deciduous, losing its leaves seasonally, between September and December. The leaves are simple or divided, with one or more narrow leaf blades up to 11 centimetres (4in) long and 2cm (0.8in) wide. Cream-coloured flowers appear from September to November, and are followed by woody, boat-shaped follicles that ripen from November to May. No subspecies are recognised.
As a drought deciduous and succulent tree, much like the baobab (Adansonia) of Madagascar, B.rupestris adapts readily to cultivation, and is quite tolerant of a range of soils and temperatures. It is a key component and emergent tree in the endangered central semi-evergreen vine thickets (also known as bottletree scrub) of the Queensland Brigalow Belt. Remnant trees are often left by farmers on cleared land for their value as shade and fodder trees, and as homes for various birds and animals. (Full article...)
Banksia paludosa, commonly known as the marsh or swamp banksia, is a species of shrub in the plantgenusBanksia. It is native to New South Wales, Australia, where it is found between Sydney and Batemans Bay, with an isolated population further south around Eden. There are two recognised subspecies, the nominate of which is a spreading shrub to 1.5m (4.9ft) in height, and subsp. astrolux is a taller shrub to 5m (16ft) high found only in Nattai National Park.
Native mammals, such as the brown antechinus and sugar glider, are important pollinators of B.paludosa. Several species of honeyeaters visit the flower spikes, as do ants and the European honey bee. The response to bushfire depends on the subspecies; subspecies paludosa regenerates from underground lignotubers, while plants of subspecies astrolux are killed by fire and regenerate from large stores of seed which have been held in cones in the plant canopy. B.paludosa is sometimes seen in cultivation, with dwarf forms being registered and sold. (Full article...)
Image 4
Telopea speciosissima flowerhead with florets opening from the edges towards the centre, Blue Mountains, Australia
The floral emblem for its home state of New South Wales, Telopea speciosissima has featured prominently in art, architecture, and advertising, particularly since Australian federation. Commercially grown in several countries as a cut flower, it is also cultivated in home gardens, requiring good drainage yet adequate moisture, but is vulnerable to various fungal diseases and pests. A number of cultivars with various shades of red, pink and even white flowers are available. Horticulturists have also developed hybrids with T.oreades and T.mongaensis which are more tolerant of cold, shade, and heavier soils. (Full article...)
Image 5
The flora of Madagascar consists of more than 12,000 species of plants, as well as a poorly known number of fungi and algae. Around 83% of Madagascar's vascular plants are found only on the island. These endemics include five plant families, 85% of the over 900 orchid species, around 200 species of palms, and such emblematic species as the traveller's tree, six species of baobab and the Madagascar periwinkle. The high degree of endemism is due to Madagascar's long isolation following its separation from the African and Indian landmasses in the Mesozoic, 150–160 and 84–91million years ago, respectively. However, few plant lineages remain from the ancient Gondwanan flora; most extant plant groups immigrated via across-ocean dispersal well after continental break-up.
After its continental separation, Madagascar probably experienced a dry period, and tropical rainforest expanded only later in the Oligocene to Miocene when rainfall increased. Today, humid forests, including the lowland forests, are mainly found on the eastern plateau where abundant rainfall from the Indian Ocean is captured by an escarpment. A large part of the central highlands, in the sub-humid forests ecoregion, is today dominated by grasslands. They are widely seen as result of human landscape transformation but some may be more ancient. Grassland occurs in a mosaic with woodland and bushland, including tapia forest, and hard-leaved thickets on the high mountains. Dry forest and succulent woodland are found in the drier western part and grade into the unique spiny thicket in the southwest, where rainfall is lowest and the wet season shortest. Mangroves occur on the west coast, and a variety of wetland habitats with an adapted flora are found across the island. (Full article...)
In nature, B.sceptrum grows in deep yellow or pale red sand in tall shrubland, commonly on dunes, being found as a shrub to 5 metres (16ft) high, though often smaller in exposed areas. It is killed by fire and regenerates by seed, the woody follicles opening with fire. B.sceptrum is one of the most striking yellow-flowered banksias of all. Its tall bright yellow spikes, known as inflorescences, are terminal and well displayed. Flowering is in summer, mainly December and January, though flowers are occasionally seen at other times. (Full article...)
Image 7
Banksia aculeata, commonly known as prickly banksia, is a species of plant of the family Proteaceae native to the Stirling Range in the southwest of Western Australia. A shrub up to 2m (7ft) tall, it has dense foliage and leaves with very prickly serrated margins. Its unusual pinkish, pendent (hanging) flower spikes, known as inflorescences, are generally hidden in the foliage and appear during the early summer. Although it was collected by the naturalist James Drummond in the 1840s, Banksia aculeata was not formally described until 1981, by Alex George in his monograph of the genus.
A rare plant, Banksia aculeata is found in gravelly soils in elevated areas. Native to a habitat burnt by periodic bushfires, it is killed by fire and regenerates from seed afterwards. In contrast to other Western Australian banksias, it appears to have some resistance to the soil-borne water mouldPhytophthora cinnamomi. (Full article...)
Image 8
Florida strangler fig in Deering Park, Florida
Ficus aurea, commonly known as the Florida strangler fig (or simply strangler fig), golden fig, or higuerón, is a tree in the family Moraceae that is native to the U.S. state of Florida, the northern and western Caribbean, southern Mexico and Central America south to Panama. The specific epithet aurea was applied by English botanist Thomas Nuttall who described the species in 1846.
Ficus aurea is a strangler fig. In figs of this group, seed germination usually takes place in the canopy of a host tree with the seedling living as an epiphyte until its roots establish contact with the ground. After that, it enlarges and strangles its host, eventually becoming a free-standing tree in its own right. Individuals may reach 30m (100ft) in height. The tree provides habitat, food and shelter for a host of tropical lifeforms including epiphytes in cloud forests and birds, mammals, reptiles and invertebrates. F. aurea is used in traditional medicine, for live fencing, as an ornamental and as a bonsai. (Full article...)
Image 9
Banksia scabrella, commonly known as the Burma Road banksia, is a species of woody shrub in the genus Banksia. It is classified in the series Abietinae, a group of several species of shrubs with small round or oval inflorescences. It occurs in a number of isolated populations south of Geraldton, Western Australia, with the largest population being south and east of Mount Adams. Found on sandy soils in heathland or shrubland, it grows to 2m (7ft) high and 3m (10ft) across with fine needle-like leaves. Appearing in spring and summer, the inflorescences are round to oval in shape and tan to cream with purple styles. Banksia scabrella is killed by fire and regenerates by seed.
Originally collected in 1966, B.scabrella was one of several species previously considered to be forms of Banksia sphaerocarpa, before it was finally described by banksia expert Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus. Like many members of the Abietinae, it is rarely seen in cultivation; however, it has been described as having horticultural potential. (Full article...)
Image 10
'Blue Spire' cultivar
Salvia yangii, previously known as Perovskia atriplicifolia (/pəˈrɒvskiəætrɪplɪsɪˈfoʊliə/), and commonly called Russian sage, is a flowering herbaceousperennial plant and subshrub. Although not previously a member of Salvia, the genus widely known as sage, since 2017 it has been included within them. It has an upright habit, typically reaching 0.5–1.2 metres (1+1⁄2–4 feet) tall, with square stems and gray-green leaves that yield a distinctive odor when crushed. It is best known for its flowers. Its flowering season extends from mid-summer to late October, with blue to violet blossoms arranged into showy, branched panicles.
It is native to the steppes and hills of southwestern and central Asia. Successful over a wide range of climate and soil conditions, it has since become popular and widely planted. Several cultivars have been developed, differing primarily in leaf shape and overall height; 'Blue Spire' is the most common. This cultivar has been widely used in gardens and landscaping. S.yangii was the Perennial Plant Association's 1995 Plant of the Year, and the 'Blue Spire' cultivar received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society. (Full article...)
Image 11
Banksia lemanniana, the yellow lantern banksia or Lemann's banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the familyProteaceae, native to Western Australia. It generally grows as an open woody shrub or small tree to 5m (16ft) high, with stiff serrated leaves and unusual hanging inflorescences. Flowering occurs over summer, the greenish buds developing into oval flower spikes before turning grey and developing the characteristic large woody follicles. It occurs within and just east of the Fitzgerald River National Park on the southern coast of the state. B.lemanniana is killed by bushfire and regenerates from seed.
Described by Swiss botanist Carl Meissner in 1856, Banksia lemanniana was named in honour of English botanist Charles Morgan Lemann. It is one of three or four related species all with pendent inflorescences, which is an unusual feature of banksias. No subspecies are recognised. Banksia lemanniana is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia. Unlike many Western Australian banksias, it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil-borne water mouldPhytophthora cinnamomi, and is one of the easier Western Australian species to grow in cultivation. (Full article...)
Image 12
Adiantum viridimontanum growing in a dunite roadcut
Adiantum viridimontanum, commonly known as Green Mountain maidenhair fern, is a fern found only in outcrops of serpentine rock in New England and Eastern Canada. The leaf blade is cut into finger-like segments, themselves once-divided, which are borne on the outer side of a curved, dark, glossy rachis. These finger-like segments are not individual leaves, but parts of a single compound leaf. The "fingers" may be drooping or erect, depending on whether the individual fern grows in shade or sunlight. Spores are borne under false indusia at the edge of the subdivisions of the leaf, a characteristic unique to the genus Adiantum.
Until 1991, A.viridimontanum was grouped with the western maidenhair fern, A. aleuticum, which grows both in western North America and as a disjunct on serpentine outcrops in eastern North America. At one time, A.aleuticum itself was classified as a variety (A.pedatum var. aleuticum) of the northern maidenhair fern, A. pedatum. However, after several years of study, botanist Cathy Paris recognized that A.aleuticum was a distinct species, and that some of the specimens that had been attributed to that taxon (group of organisms) were a third, hybrid species intermediate between A.pedatum and A.aleuticum. She named the new species A.viridimontanum for the site of its discovery in the Green Mountains in Vermont; it has since been located in Quebec and in one site in coastal Maine. (Full article...)
Image 13
Banksia petiolaris is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia, where it is found in sandy soils in the south coastal regions from Munglinup east to Israelite Bay. It was first described by Victorian state botanistFerdinand von Mueller in 1864, and no subspecies are recognised. B.petiolaris is one of several closely related species that will all grow as prostrate shrubs, with horizontal stems and thick, leathery upright leaves. Those of this species can be viable for up to 13 years—the longest-lived of any flowering plant recorded. It bears yellow cylindrical flower spikes, known as inflorescences, up to 16cm (6+1⁄4in) high in spring. As the spikes age, they turn grey and develop up to 20 woody seed pods, known as follicles, each.
Insects such as bees, wasps and even ants can pollinate the flowers. B.petiolaris is nonlignotuberous, meaning it regenerates by seed after bushfire. B.petiolaris adapts readily to cultivation, growing in well-drained sandy soils in sunny locations. It is suitable for rockeries and as a groundcover. (Full article...)
While at the bookshop, he was offered a position as a librarian at the Royal Horticultural Society in London (1933–1952). From there he moved to the Natural History Museum as a scientific officer in the botany department (1952–1976). After his retirement, he continued working there, writing, and serving on a number of professional bodies related to his work, including the Linnean Society, of which he became president. He also taught botany at Cambridge University as a visiting professor (1977–1983). (Full article...)
Ficus macrophylla, commonly known as the Moreton Bay fig or Australian banyan, is a large evergreen banyan tree of the mulberry and fig family Moraceae. It is native to eastern Australia, from the Wide Bay–Burnett region of Queensland in the north to the Illawarra region of New South Wales. The infraspeciesFicus macrophylla f. columnaris is endemic to Lord Howe Island. Its common name refers to Moreton Bay in Queensland. It is best known for its imposing buttress roots.
Ficus macrophylla is called a strangler fig because seed germination usually takes place in the canopy of a host tree, where the seedling lives as an epiphyte until its roots establish contact with the ground, when it enlarges and strangles its host, eventually becoming a freestanding tree by itself. Individuals may reach 60m (200ft) in height. The greatest exact height to be reported is 70.6m (232ft). It has an obligate mutualism with fig wasps; figs are pollinated only by fig wasps, and fig wasps can reproduce only in fig flowers. The wasp partner of the Moreton Bay fig is Pleistodontes froggattii. Many species of birds, including pigeons, parrots, and various passerines, eat the fruit. (Full article...)
Vitis (grapevine) is a genus of about 80 species of twining plants in the family Vitaceae. The genus consists of species predominantly from the Northern Hemisphere. It is economically important as the source of grapes, both for direct consumption of the fruit and for fermentation to produce wine. The study and cultivation of grapevines is called viticulture.
Most cultivated Vitis varieties are wind-pollinated with hermaphroditic flowers containing both male and female reproductive structures, while wild species are dioecious. These flowers are grouped in bunches called inflorescences. In many species, such as Vitis vinifera, each successfully pollinated flower becomes a grape berry with the inflorescence turning into a cluster of grapes. While the flowers of the grapevines are usually very small, the berries are often large and brightly colored with sweet flavors that attract birds and other animals to disperse the seeds contained within the berries. (Full article...)
Image 2
Zosterophyllum species fossils; left: with coiled (circinate) branch tips, right: with sporangium
The zosterophylls are a group of extinct land plants that first appeared in the Silurian period. The taxon was first established by Banks in 1968 as the subdivisionZosterophyllophytina; they have since also been treated as the divisionZosterophyllophyta or Zosterophyta and the class or plesionZosterophyllopsida or Zosteropsida. They were among the first vascular plants in the fossil record, and had a world-wide distribution. They were probably stem-grouplycophytes, forming a sister group to the ancestors of the living lycophytes. By the late Silurian (late Ludlovian, about 420million years ago) a diverse assemblage of species existed, examples of which have been found fossilised in what is now Bathurst Island in ArcticCanada. (Full article...)
Image 3
Bee pollinating a flower Entomophily or insect pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen of plants, especially but not only of flowering plants, is distributed by insects. Flowers pollinated by insects typically advertise themselves with bright colours, sometimes with conspicuous patterns (honey guides) leading to rewards of pollen and nectar; they may also have an attractive scent which in some cases mimics insect pheromones. Insect pollinators such as bees have adaptations for their role, such as lapping or sucking mouthparts to take in nectar, and in some species also pollen baskets on their hind legs. This required the coevolution of insects and flowering plants in the development of pollination behaviour by the insects and pollination mechanisms by the flowers, benefiting both groups. Both the size and the density of a population are known to affect pollination and subsequent reproductive performance. (Full article...)
Chamaenerion is a genus of flowering plants in the familyOnagraceae (the evening primrose or willowherb family). It has sometimes been included in the genus Epilobium. Members of the genus may be called willowherbs (along with Epilobium), or fireweeds, based on a common name used for C.angustifolium. They are upright herbaceousperennials, growing from a woody base or from rhizomes, with racemes of usually purple to pink flowers. All species are found in the northern hemisphere. Most occur in moist habitats; C.angustifolium is the exception, favouring disturbed ground. (Full article...)
Image 5
A late Siluriansporangium, artificially colored. Green: A spore tetrad. Blue: A spore bearing a trilete mark– the Y-shaped scar. The spores are about 30–35μm across.
The evolution of plants has resulted in a wide range of complexity, from the earliest algal mats of unicellular archaeplastids evolved through endosymbiosis, through multicellular marine and freshwatergreen algae, to spore-bearing terrestrial bryophytes, lycopods and ferns, and eventually to the complex seed-bearing gymnosperms and angiosperms (flowering plants) of today. While many of the earliest groups continue to thrive, as exemplified by red and green algae in marine environments, more recently derived groups have displaced previously ecologically dominant ones; for example, the ascendance of flowering plants over gymnosperms in terrestrial environments.
There is evidence that cyanobacteria and multicellular thalloid eukaryotes lived in freshwater communities on land as early as 1 billion years ago, and that communities of complex, multicellular photosynthesizing organisms existed on land in the late Precambrian, around 850million years ago. (Full article...)
Image 6
A young tomato sappling (S. lycopersicum) after being transferred to a larger pot once ample sizeHorticulture (from Latin: horti + culture) is the science and art of growing ornamental plants, flowers, as well as fruits, vegetables, and other economically valuable crops or trees on a controlled scale. Horticulture is distinct from conventional extensive farming and row cropagronomy through its emphasis on landscaping, plant propagation, floriculture, or various non-ornamental crops being grown in deliberately controlled environments such as greenhouses and specific formats of commercialsmall-scale outdoor operations. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes. These divisions include, but are not limited to: propagation, arboriculture, landscaping, floriculture and turf maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges—each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.
Typically, horticulture is characterized as the ornamental, small-scale and non-industrial cultivation of plants; horticulture is distinct from gardening by its emphasis on scientific methods, plant breeding, and technical cultivation practices, while gardening, even at a professional level, tends to focus more on the aesthetic care and maintenance of plants in gardens or landscapes. However, some aspects of horticulture are industrialized or commercial such as greenhouse production or CEA. (Full article...)
Image 7
Green scuppernongs among muscadine mix
The scuppernong is a large variety of muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), a species of grape native to the southern United States. It is usually a greenish or bronze color and is similar in appearance and texture to a white grape, but rounder and larger.
First known as the "big white grape", the grape is commonly known as the "scuplin" in some areas of the Deep South and also as the "scufalum", "scupanon", "scupadine", "scuppernine", "scupnun", or "scufadine" in other parts of the South. The scuppernong is the state fruit of North Carolina. (Full article...)
Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the air plant, Kalanchoe pinnata. The small plant in front is about 1 cm tall. The concept of "individual" is stretched by this process. Vegetative reproduction (also known as vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication or cloning) is a form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment or cutting of the parent plant or specialized reproductive structures, which are sometimes called vegetative propagules.
Many plants naturally reproduce this way, but it can also be induced artificially. Horticulturists have developed asexual propagation techniques that use vegetative propagules to replicate plants. Success rates and difficulty of propagation vary greatly. Monocotyledons typically lack a vascular cambium, making them more challenging to propagate. (Full article...)
Image 10
Tropical coastline vegetation in Maui with Scaevola taccada bush in the foreground Tropical vegetation, plant life that occurs in climates that are warm year-round, is in general more biologically diverse than in other latitudes. Some tropical areas may receive abundant rain the whole year round, while others have long dry seasons which last several months and may vary in length and intensity with geographic location. These seasonal droughts have a great impact on the vegetation, such as in the Madagascar spiny forests.
Rainforest vegetation can often be categorized into five layers. The top layer is the emergents, the upper tree layer, with the largest and widest trees in all the forest, commonly 50m (160ft) and higher. These trees tend to have very large canopies so they can be fully exposed to sunlight. A layer below that is the canopy, or middle tree layer, averaging 30–40m (98–131ft) in height. Here there are more compact trees and vegetation. These trees, shaded, tend to be slenderer. The third layer is the lower tree area. These trees tend to be around 5–10m (16–33ft) high and tightly compacted. The trees found in the third layer include young trees with the potential to grow into larger canopy trees, and "palmoids" or "corner model trees". The fourth layer is the shrub layer beneath the tree canopy. This layer is mainly populated by sapling trees, shrubs, and seedlings. The fifth and lowest layer is the herb layer which is the forest floor, mainly bare except for various plants, mosses, lycopods and ferns. The forest floor is much more dense than above because of little sunlight and air movement. (Full article...)
Some species are shrubs, trees (such as teak), or, rarely, vines, but most are herbaceous. Many members of the family are widely cultivated, not only for their aromatic qualities, but also their ease of cultivation through stem cuttings. Many species are cultivated for their aromatic leaves and can have additional edible parts. Some species are grown for seed, such as Salvia hispanica (chia), or for their edible tubers, such as Plectranthus edulis, P.esculentus, P.rotundifolius, and Stachys affinis (Chinese artichoke). Many are also grown ornamentally, notably coleus, Plectranthus, and Salvia species/hybrids. (Full article...)
Date palms reach up to 30 metres (98ft) in height, growing singly or in clumps with several stems from a single root system. Slow-growing, they can reach over 100years of age when maintained properly. Their fruits are oval-cylindrical, 3 to 7 centimetres (1 to 3 inches) long, and about 2.5cm (1in) in diameter, with colour ranging from dark brown to bright red or yellow, depending on variety. Containing 63–64% sugar by mass when dried, dates are consumed as sweet snacks on their own or with confections. (Full article...)
Image 13
Ethylene chemical structure. Ethylene signaling pathway is a signal transduction in plant cells to regulate important growth and developmental processes. Acting as a plant hormone, the gas ethylene is responsible for promoting the germination of seeds, ripening of fruits, the opening of flowers, the abscission (or shedding) of leaves and stress responses. It is the simplest alkene gas and the first gaseous molecule discovered to function as a hormone.
Most of the understanding on ethylene signal transduction come from studies on Arabidopsis thaliana. Ethylene can bind to at least five different membrane gasoreceptors. Although structurally diverse, the ethylene gasoreceptors all exhibit similarity (homology) to two-component regulatory system in bacteria, indicating their common ancestry from bacterial ancestor. Ethylene binds to the gasoreceptors on the cell membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum. Although homodimers of the gasoreceptors are required for functional state, only one ethylene molecule binds to each dimer. (Full article...)
Image 14
Taraxacum (/təˈræksəkəm/) is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae which consists of species commonly known as dandelions. The scientific and hobby study of the genus is known as taraxacology. The genus has a near-cosmopolitan distribution, absent only from tropical and polar areas. Two of the most common species worldwide, T.officinale (the common dandelion) and T.erythrospermum (the red-seeded dandelion), are European species introduced into North America, where they are non native. Dandelions thrive in temperate regions and can be found in yards, gardens, sides of roads, among crops, and in many other habitats.
Like other members of the family Asteraceae, they have very small flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret. In part due to their abundance, along with being a generalist species, dandelions are one of the most vital early spring nectar sources for a wide host of pollinators. Many Taraxacum species produce seeds asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant. (Full article...)
Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and colour, seed shape and colour, and flower position and colour. Taking seed colour as an example, Mendel showed that when a true-breeding yellow pea and a true-breeding green pea were cross-bred, their offspring always produced yellow seeds. However, in the next generation, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1 green to 3 yellow. To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms "recessive" and "dominant" in reference to certain traits. In the preceding example, the green trait, which seems to have vanished in the first filial generation, is recessive, and the yellow is dominant. He published his work in 1866, demonstrating the actions of invisible "factors"—now called genes—in predictably determining the traits of an organism. The actual genes were only discovered in a long process that ended in 2025 when the last three of the seven Mendel genes were identified in the pea genome. (Full article...)
Polemonium reptans is a flowering plant in the genus Polemonium, native to eastern North America. Common names include Abscess Root, Creeping or Spreading Jacob's Ladder, False Jacob's Ladder, American Greek Valerian, Blue bells, Stairway to Heaven, and Sweatroot.
Pines (genus Pinus) (/ˈpaɪ.nəs/) are a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamilyPinoideae. The species are trees or shrubs with their leaves in bunches, usually of 2 to 5 needles. The seeds are carried on woody cones, with two seeds to each cone scale.
Fuchsia excorticata, commonly known as the kōtukutuku and tree fuchsia, is a species of tree in the family Onagraceae that is endemic to New Zealand. It is the largest Fuchsia species and is deciduous, an uncommon trait in New Zealand plants. It reaches 13 metres (40 feet) in height with a trunk up to 70cm (28in) in diameter. Its range mainly covers the North, South, and Stewart Islands, but can be found as far south as the Auckland Islands. It inhabits lowland to montane ecosystems, and is especially common near streams and forest margins. F.excorticata is noted for its bark, which naturally peels off into thin sheets of paper. Its scientific name, excorticata, reflects this distinctive property.
Fuchsia excorticata was first described by the German naturalists Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster in 1775. F.excorticata is self-compatible, but its colourful flowers commonly attract bird pollinators. F.excorticata's fruits are dispersed by fruit-eating animals (frugivores), such as birds. F.excorticata is one of New Zealand's least flammable trees, which earned it the nickname "bucket-of-water" wood by early European settlers as it is very difficult to burn. F.excorticta is a culturally important tree to the indigenous Māori people; it had multiple uses, importantly, the berries were used as a source of food. They were also eaten by early European settlers in the form of jams and puddings. F.excorticata's 2023 assessment in the New Zealand Threat Classification System was "Not Threatened". (Full article...)
The olive has deep historical, economic, and cultural significance in the Mediterranean. It was one of the first fruit trees to be domesticated, being first cultivated in the Eastern Mediterranean between 6,000 and 4,000 BC. It gradually spread around the Mediterranean Basin via trade and human migration. Olive cultivation was vital to the growth and prosperity of several Mediterranean civilisations. (Full article...)
Image 5
Rye (Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cereals wheat and barley. It is likely that rye arrived in Europe as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.
Rye grain is used for bread, beer, rye whiskey, and animal fodder. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and rye crispbread remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid, triticale, combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, the Roggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon or Feldgeist. (Full article...)
Image 6
Portrait of Elfving, 1870s
Fredrik Emil Volmar Elfving (9 December 1854 – 21 June 1942) was a Swedish-speaking Finnish botanist, plant physiologist, and university administrator. During his university training, he frequently traveled abroad to learn new scientific methods and techniques from other prominent European scientists. Although his earliest publications dealt with phytogeography and phycology (particularly the green algae known as the desmids), his most notable research was in plant physiology. Early in his career, he published seminal work on the flow of water through the stems of woody plants, and investigated the phenomenon of transversely geotropic plant organs. In contrast to his works on plant physiology, his later experiments and views on lichens, which he himself considered his most important work, was far less favourably received.
Elfving became a Professor of botany at the University of Helsinki in 1892, a position he held until his retirement in 1926. A lively and enthusiastic teacher, Elfving revolutionized the teaching of botany at the university by introducing laboratory courses that emphasized the study of plant physiology, rather than taxonomy, as had been the tradition. During his time as professor, Elfving wrote many historical papers about scientific societies, and biographies of Scandinavian scientists. He wrote the books Tärkeimmät viljelyskasvit ("The Most Important Crops") and the Kasvitieteen oppikirja ("Botanical Textbook"), which were widely used as textbooks. Elfving has had several taxa named after him. (Full article...)
She was the first plant pathologist at Rothamsted Experimental Station and was particularly interested in soil-based fungal diseases including potato wart, eyespot in wheat and take-all. She discovered a method for identifying varieties of crop resistant to these fungal diseases and proved that methods such as crop rotation only perpetuated the problem. Her research led to increased yields in agriculture, which was of particular note during World War II, and was appointed an OBE for her services to agriculture. (Full article...)
Larches are deciduousconifers in the genus Larix, of the pine family, Pinaceae. Growing to as much as 60m (195ft) tall, they are native to the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere. They grow in lowland forests in the far north, and high in mountains further south. Larches are among the dominant plants in the boreal forests of Siberia and Canada, making them the most abundant genus of trees on earth. Larch wood is tough and relatively durable; it is used in boatbuilding, cladding, decking, garden furniture, fencing, and construction. Products extracted from larch include arabinogalactan (larch gum), rosin, turpentine, and an essential oil. (Full article...)
Aggressive mimicry is a form of mimicry in which predators, parasites, or parasitoids share similar signals, using a harmless model, allowing them to avoid being correctly identified by their prey or host. Zoologists have repeatedly compared this strategy to a wolf in sheep's clothing. In its broadest sense, aggressive mimicry could include various types of exploitation, as when an orchid exploits a male insect by mimicking a sexually receptive female (see pseudocopulation), but will here be restricted to forms of exploitation involving feeding. For example, indigenous Australians who dress up as and imitate kangaroos when hunting would not be considered aggressive mimics, nor would a human angler, though they are undoubtedly practising self-decoration camouflage. Treated separately is molecular mimicry, which shares some similarity; for instance a virus may mimic the molecular properties of its host, allowing it access to its cells. An alternative term, Peckhamian mimicry, has been suggested (after George and Elizabeth Peckham), but it is seldom used.
Aggressive mimicry is opposite in principle to defensive mimicry, where the mimic generally benefits from being treated as harmful. The mimic may resemble its own prey, or some other organism which is beneficial or at least not harmful to the prey. The model, i.e. the organism being 'imitated', may experience increased or reduced fitness, or may not be affected at all by the relationship. On the other hand, the signal receiver inevitably suffers from being tricked, as is the case in most mimicry complexes. (Full article...)
Coronariae (literally a crown or garland) is a term used historically to refer to a group of flowering plants, generally including the lilies (Liliaceae), and later replaced by the orderLiliales. First used in the 17th century by John Ray, it referred to flowers used to insert in garlands. Coronariae soon came to be associated with Liliaceae in the Linnaean system. The term was abandoned at the end of the 19th century, being replaced with Liliiflorae and then Liliales. (Full article...)
Prumnopitys taxifolia, commonly known as mataī and black pine, is a species of tree in the family Podocarpaceae. It is a dioecious evergreen conifer reaching 30 metres (100 feet) in height, with a stout trunk up to 2m (6ft 7in) in diameter, typically inhabiting lowland to montane forests. It is endemic to New Zealand; its range mainly covers the North and South Islands, it is also found on Stewart Island, but is uncommon there. P. taxifolia is a slow-growing tree and is highly shade-tolerant. P. taxifolia is profoundly heteroblastic; its young form is distinct and resembles a divaricating-wiry shrub, which may last for up to 60 years. It is unknown why P. taxifolia developed this characteristic. P. taxifolia has an average lifespan of 600 years, although it sometimes may live longer than 1000 years.
Prumnopitys taxifolia was first described by the British botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert in 1832. The fruits of P. taxifolia are dispersed by fruit-eating animals (frugivores), and the tree is pollinated by the wind. It is common on fertile and well-drained soils, although it can still grow well in drier climates. P. taxifolia's timber is noted for its strength and durability, and was historically used for building bridges and houses, railway sleepers, and furniture-making. The conservation status of P. taxifolia was assessed by the IUCN Red List in 2013 as "Least Concern". (Full article...)
The taxonomy of Narcissus is complex, and still not fully resolved. Known to the ancients, the genus name appears in Graeco-Roman literature, although their interest was as much medicinal as botanical. It is unclear which species the ancients were familiar with. Although frequently mentioned in Mediaeval and Renaissance texts it was not formally described till the work of Linnaeus in 1753. By 1789 it had been grouped into a family (Narcissi) but shortly thereafter this was renamed Amaryllideae, from which comes the modern placement within Amaryllidaceae, although for a while it was considered part of Liliaceae.
Many of the species now considered to be Narcissus were in separate genera during the nineteenth century, and the situation was further confused by the inclusion of many cultivated varieties. By 1875 the current circumscription was relatively settled. By 2004 phylogenetic studies had allowed the place of Narcissus within its fairly large family to be established, nested within a series of subfamilies (Amaryllidoideae) and tribes (Narcisseae). It shares its position in the latter tribe with Sternbergia. (Full article...)
Lilioid monocots (lilioids, liliid monocots, petaloid monocots, petaloid lilioid monocots) is an informal name used for a grade (grouping of taxa with common characteristics) of five monocotorders (Petrosaviales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales and Asparagales) in which the majority of species have flowers with relatively large, coloured tepals. This characteristic is similar to that found in lilies ("lily-like"). Petaloid monocots refers to the flowers having tepals which all resemble petals (petaloid). The taxonomic terms Lilianae or Liliiflorae have also been applied to this assemblage at various times. From the early nineteenth century many of the species in this group of plants were put into a very broadly defined family, Liliaceaesensu lato or s.l. (lily family). These classification systems are still found in many books and other sources. Within the monocots the Liliaceae s.l. were distinguished from the Glumaceae.
The development of molecular phylogenetics, cladistic theory and phylogenetic methods in the 1990s resulted in a dismemberment of the Liliaceae and its subsequent redistribution across three lilioid orders (Liliales, Asparagales and Dioscoreales). Subsequent work has shown that two other more recently recognized orders, Petrosaviales and Pandanales also segregate with this group, resulting in the modern concept of five constituent orders within the lilioid monocot assemblage. This has resulted in treating monocots as three informal groups, alismatid, lilioid and commelinid monocots. The lilioids are paraphyletic in the sense that commelinids form a sister group to Asparagales. (Full article...)
Image 15
Foliage of Schefflera digitata
Schefflera digitata, commonly known as patē, seven finger (or seven-finger), is a species of tree in the family Araliaceae. It is endemic to New Zealand and is widespread in the North, South, and Stewart Islands. It occurs in lowland to montane forests from sea level to 1,200m (3,900ft). It prefers damp, shady parts of the forest and is common along stream banks. It is the only New Zealand member of the genus Schefflera, which has 12 other species in Oceania.
... that police officers had to be flown in by helicopter to seize hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of cannabis plants found growing illegally in Jerrawangala National Park?
... that the Ming prince Zhu Su authored a botanical monograph describing 414 edible wild plants to help people survive crop failures and famines?
... that Times Tables Rock Stars added cochlear implants to the game after pupils at a deaf school requested them?
... that Marie Catharine Neal, an expert on Hawaiian plants, authored the acclaimed book In Gardens of Hawaii in 1948, which described more than 2,000 species with detailed scientific information and illustrations?
Image 5A banded tube from the Late Silurian/Early Devonian. The bands are difficult to see on this specimen, as an opaque carbonaceous coating conceals much of the tube. Bands are just visible in places on the left half of the image. Scale bar: 20μm (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 10Paper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts: yellowish xanthophylls, greenish chlorophylls a and b. (from Botany)
Image 12The fruit of Myristica fragrans, a species native to Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (mace) enclosing the dark brown nutmeg. (from Botany)
Image 13The branching pattern of megaphyll veins may indicate their origin as webbed, dichotomising branches. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 14Structure of azadirachtin, a terpenoid produced by the neem plant, which helps ward off microbes and insects. Many secondary metabolites have complex structures (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 18Structure of a plant cell (from Plant cell)
Image 19Echeveria glauca in a Connecticut greenhouse. Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific name glauca means blue. (from Botany)
Image 21The Devonian marks the beginning of extensive land colonization by plants, which – through their effects on erosion and sedimentation – brought about significant climatic change. (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 22The evolution of syncarps. a: sporangia borne at tips of leaf b: Leaf curls up to protect sporangia c: leaf curls to form enclosed roll d: grouping of three rolls into a syncarp (from Evolutionary history of plants)
Image 28Micropropagation of transgenic plants (from Botany)
Image 291 An oat coleoptile with the sun overhead. Auxin (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip. 2 With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulates cell elongation there. 3 and 4 Extra growth on that side causes the shoot to bend towards the sun. (from Botany)
.jpg)
.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpeg)
.jpg){kind=small}
Commons
Wikibooks
Wikidata
Wikiquote
Wikisource
Wikiversity
Wiktionary
