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Pedal steel guitar

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Modern pedal steel guitar with two necks


The pedal steel guitar is a string instrument mounted horizontally on a frame and played while seated. The player typically plucks the strings with the dominant hand while pressing and moving a steel bar against them with the other hand. The instrument has no resonant chamber; its sound is transmitted by an electric pickup to an amplifier. Like all steel guitars, the pedal steel can produce smooth glissandi (sliding notes) and controlled vibrato, expressive techniques akin to the human singing voice.

What distinguishes the pedal steel from pre-existing lap steels is a set of foot pedals and knee levers that raise or lower the pitch of selected strings and will allow this to occur while other notes are still sounding. The mechanism was developed by U.S. inventors in the 1940s and 1950s to extend the instrument's harmonic capabilities. It allowed players to form chords and voicings that were previously unavailable on a steel guitar, and it produced a distinctive sound that became a defining element of American country music in the latter half of the twentieth century.


The first No. 1 Billboard country recording to feature pedal steel was Webb Pierce's 1953 recording of "Slowly", on which Bud Isaacs demonstrated a novel technique of pushing a pedal to change pitches within a chord while existing notes in it were still sounding. The popularity of this unique harmonic motif influenced lap steel guitarists to switch to pedal-equipped instruments.

Innovations by Buddy Emmons, Jimmy Day, Zane Beck, Paul Bigsby, and others established many of the mechanical and tuning conventions used on the modern pedal steel guitar. Although most closely associated with country music, the pedal steel has also been adopted in diverse genres, including western swing, jazz, rock, pop and Sacred Steel.

Design and operation

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A typical modern E9 pedal steel has ten strings, three foot pedals, and five knee levers.[1] The player generally wears picks on the thumb and two fingers of the picking hand.[2] The other hand presses a polished steel bar across the strings, and moves it along the neck. The instrument has no frets, only markers that look like frets to serve as visual guides for positioning the bar.[2]

Underside of a single-neck E9 pedal steel guitar, showing the pedal rods, cross shafts, pull rods, and changer mechanism.

Long metal rods connect the foot pedals to rotating shafts beneath the instrument. These shafts operate pull rods traveling across the underbody to individual changer fingers at the end of the guitar (pictured). Each string is attached to a changer finger that rotates slightly when a pedal or knee lever is activated. This action changes the string’s tension and raises or lowers its pitch by a predetermined interval—commonly a semitone or whole tone.

E9 pedal tuning adjustment with tuning wrench— shows changer fingers above

When the pedal or lever is released, springs return the string to its original pitch.[3]

The open strings are tuned at the instrument's headstock like a conventional guitar, but changes produced by the pedals and knee levers are adjusted independently in a small compartment at the end of the guitar (pictured). It houses rows of hexagonal nylon tuning rods, one for each pedal. The purpose here is to correct a common problem where a chord struck without touching a pedal is perfectly tuned, but pushing the pedal produces an out-of-tune chord. To correct it, the pedal is held down while the tuning rod is adjusted to correct pitch with a tuning wrench (pictured). Turning the wrench clockwise increases the distance the string will be stretched. These adjustments are made only after the open strings have been tuned accurately.[4]

Development

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The pedal steel guitar emerged from earlier steel guitar designs. The acoustic Hawaiian guitar, now commonly called the lap steel, was followed by louder resonator guitars. The development of the electromagnetic pickup in the early 1930s led to electrified lap steels and, subsequently, console steels. [5][6] As electric instruments became widely used, two subsequent changes followed: One, the production of the dedicated guitar amplifier, which had to be purchased in order to use the technology;[6][7] and two, that electrified guitars no longer had to have the traditional guitar shape.[8] Instrument makers rapidly began making steel guitars into a rectangular shape with an electric pickup, the precursor of the pedal steel.[9][10]

By the late 1940s the lap steel's inherent harmonic limitations and meager array of chords and inversions were exposing the limits of what fixed tunings could accomplish.[11]: 33  Players needed a way to have different voicings on the same guitar without stopping to retune.[12][11] To get those voicings, scores of different tunings were used by lap steel players.[13] Some musicians kept an additional lap steel (with different tuning) on hand to be used for certain songs. Players learned to slant the bar [14] to alter individual notes within a chord, but the difficulty is that exact bar placement is demanding, varies with string spacing and fret position, and three-note slants may not place every note in perfect tune.[15] Another approach was to add more strings, thereby extending the instrument’s range and allowing narrower intervals between strings. These smaller intervals made more harmonically complex tunings possible.[11]: 36 

Rickenbacker Console 758 tripleneck steel

Musicians began placing two or more differently tuned necks on the same instrument. Performers such as Noel Boggs and Leon McAuliffe routinely switched between necks during a performance, and triple-neck instruments such as the Fender Stringmaster or a Rickenbacker 758 remained in use well into the 1950s.[16][17] The trend culminated in guitars with as many as four different necks.[16] Although effective, multi-neck console steels were cumbersome and unaffordable by many musicians, leading inventors to seek a mechanical alternative.[18]

Early pedal mechanisms

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Early designers initially sought a pedal mechanism that would change the pitch of all the strings simultaneously, effectively emulating a second neck[19] In 1939, the "Electradaire" used a pedal-controlled solenoid to operate an electrical apparatus that altered the tension of the strings, but it was not successful.[20] That same year, bandleader Alvino Rey worked with machinist John Moore to design a pedal-operated electric steel guitar.[21] Gibson subsequently introduced their design in 1940 as the "Electraharp", which featured pedals radially oriented from a single axis at the instrument's left rear leg.[22] Only 43 were sold before production was halted, but the U.S. entry into World War II may have been a factor.[11]: 39  After the war, Gibson redesigned and reintroduced the Electraharp and Bud Isaacs used one on the song "Big Blue Diamonds" for King Records.[11] The Harlan Brothers of Indianapolis created the "Multi-Kord" with a universal pedal that could fairly easily be configured to adjust the pitch of any or all strings, but was extremely hard to push when tensioning all strings at once.[20]

Bigsby pedal steel guitar

The most successful pedal system from the various contenders was designed about 1948 by Paul Bigsby, a motorcycle shop foreman and racer who also invented a commercially successful Spanish guitar vibrato tailpiece.[23] Bigsby put pedals on a rack between the two front legs of the steel guitar. The pedals operated a mechanical linkage to apply tension to raise the pitch of certain strings.[22]

Bigsby built guitars incorporating his design for the foremost steel players of the day, including Speedy West, Noel Boggs, and Bud Isaacs; but Bigsby, age 56, was a one-man operation working out of his garage, and was not capable of keeping up with demand.[20] One of Bigsby's first guitars was used on "Candy Kisses" in 1949 by Eddie Kirk.[24] The second model Bigsby made went to Speedy West, who used it extensively.[23][25]: 30  West remembered Bigsby as a perfectionist who did all of his own work, even secretarial work, and said, "He would not hire employees ... he just didn't think anyone else could do what Paul Bigsby could do."[25]: 30 

Bud Isaacs' country music breakthrough

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In 1953, Bud Isaacs received one of Bigsby's new creations, a double-neck steel which featured pedals to change the pitch of only two strings. On this record, Isaacs was the first to push the pedal while notes were still sounding. Other steel players strictly avoided doing this, because it was considered "un-Hawaiian".[17]

"Slowly" by Webb Pierce
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When Isaacs performed on the 1953 recording of Webb Pierce's "Slowly", he pushed the pedal while a chord was still sounding: one note remained the same, another bent up a half step, and a third bent up a whole step to move from a 1 chord to a 4 chord.[26]: 71  Perfect intonation of both the starting and finishing chords was achieved. This unique harmonic motif which was virtually impossible with the older (non-pedal) lap steels.[a][27] The resulting distinctive style of playing became a defining characteristic of the country music coming out of Nashville for decades thereafter.[11]: 2  It caused a virtual revolution among lap steel players who wanted to duplicate it but their lap steels could not.[12][23] The song was the first Billboard country chart-topper to feature pedal steel.[28]

Standardization of the modern instrument

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The pedal steel design was rapidly adopted by country music lap steel players in the early 1950s. As a result, the number of lap steel players gradually diminished with only pockets of devotees remaining in country and Hawaiian music.[11]: 2  Taken together, these technological evolutions eclipsed the lap steel. In its place came a complex instrument with increased possibilities, used almost exclusively in country music.[29]

Buddy Emmons

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When Webb Pierce's "Slowly" was released in 1953, Paul Bigsby was in the process of building a new pedal steel guitar for Buddy Emmons. After hearing Bud Isaacs bend two strings simultaneously with a single pedal on the recording, Emmons asked Bigsby to make his guitar setup to split the function of Isaacs' single pedal into two pedals, each controlling a different string.[17] He could easily push both pedals simultaneously to achieve the same effect as Isaacs, but had the option to push either independently, giving more options to play minors and suspended chords without moving or slanting the bar.[17] This "split-pedal" setup became the standard copedent in the E9 tuning, since it allowed greater musical flexibility. Jimmy Day had the same idea, but reversed which strings were affected by the two pedals. This prompted future manufacturers to ask customers if they wanted a "Day" or an "Emmons" setup.[17] In 1957, Emmons partnered with guitarist/machinist Harold "Shot" Jackson to form the Sho-Bud company, the first company devoted solely to pedal steel guitar manufacture.[17][30] Emmons later expanded the standard tuning by adding two chromatic strings and a third pedal, giving players greater melodic range and harmonic flexibility.[31] Sho-Bud instruments incorporated all the innovations developed through the 1950s, including 10 strings, the third pedal, and Beck’s knee levers, standardizing the E9 single-neck pedal steel guitar.[17]

Knee levers

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Steel Guitar Hall of Fame member Zane Beck pioneered the use of knee levers in the 1950s, and was the first to install them on production guitars.[32][33] Beck extended the pedal concept by recruiting the player's knees to control a separate mechanism to lower the pitch of certain strings.[29] The levers are located unobtrusively underneath the body of the guitar, protruding downward on each side of each of the player's knees. The addition greatly expanded the instrument’s harmonic possibilities.[17] Depending on the instrument, the player operates the levers by moving either knee to the left or right or by raising it. Like foot pedals, knee levers change the pitch of selected strings and may be used alone, with another knee lever, or in combination with the pedals[34] Beck’s original knee levers lowered string pitches rather than raising them; on modern pedal steels, knee levers may be configured to raise or lower strings.[17]

Copedent

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Certain players prefer different setups regarding which function the pedals and levers perform, and which string tuning is preferred.[29] In the early 1970s, musician Tom Bradshaw coined the term copedent (/koʊˈpiːdənt/ koh-PEE-dənt), a portmanteau of "chord-pedal-arrangement".[29] Often represented in table form, the copedent chart is a way of specifying the instrument's tuning, pedal and lever setup, string gauges and string windings.[29] The term is unique to pedal steel guitar.[17] The copedent chart was a way players could communicate with each other and with guitar manufacturers.[26]: 187  In addition to these contributions, Bradshaw’s entrepreneurship was instrumental in establishing the larger pedal steel community of professionals and amateurs. At first it was newsletters and gatherings, later websites including the Steel Guitar Forum.[26]: 192–3 

Evolution of the E9 copedent

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The Nashville E9 tuning for a steel guitar (also called the "E9 Chromatic Tuning")[35]: 7  is the most common tuning used in Nashville's country music. The tuning evolved from 1950 to 1970 by incremental innovations by many professional steel guitarists. Hall of fame steel players including Emmons, Jimmy Day, Ralph Mooney and others made contributions that eventually became permanent changes to the instrument.[36] By the mid-1970s, major manufacturers had largely standardized the ten-string E9 instrument with three pedals and four knee levers, although individual players continued to customize their guitars.[17]

E9 and C6 necks

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Since the 1950s, the double-neck pedal steel has been the professional standard.[26]: 178  The C6 neck (closer to the player) is typically used for western swing or jazz music and the E9 neck is usually used for country music.[37] The two tunings differ substantially in their musical capabilities. The C6 has a wider pitch range than the E9, mostly on the lower notes.[38] The two tunings evolved for different musical idioms and are optimized for them. According to author Timothy Miller, some musicians considered the E9 an entry point instrument, and C6 the more authentic neck that better players used.[26][38] Miller said one of the factors that influenced the dominance of the E9 tuning was a decision made in 1972 by one of the highest profile steel players of the time, Lloyd Green.[26]: 143  Green declared that not only was the C6 "not a profitable pursuit," but that the E9 fulfilled his musical needs.[26] Green made his point by dismantling the C6 neck on his instrument and installing a padded arm rest in its place.[26]: 178  In general, a steel player of today is expected to be fluent on either neck.[26]: 178 

Universal tuning

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There are proponents of a "universal tuning" to combine the E9 and C6 into a single 12 or 14-string neck that encompasses some features of each.[23] It was developed by Maurice Anderson and later modified by Larry Bell.[19] By lowering the C6 tuning a half-step to make it a B6, many commonalities with the E9 tuning are achieved on the same neck and it is called the E9/B6 tuning.[39]

Pedal steel use outside country music

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Jazz

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Examples of jazz played on pedal steel guitar span from 1950s–60s recordings to contemporary avant-garde and modern jazz albums. Buddy Emmons' Steel Guitar Jazz (1963, Verve) is possibly the first full-length jazz album led by a pedal steel guitarist.[40] Emmons continued exploring jazz throughout his career, including sideman work with vibraphonist Gary Burton and guitarist Lenny Breau, and a late-1970s partnership with guitarist Danny Gatton called the Redneck Jazz Explosion, documented on live recordings from Washington, D.C.'s Cellar Door club.[41] Reuben Gosfield, a pedal steel player who was co-founder of the Western-swing revivalists Asleep at the Wheel, often played Count Basie and Louis Jordan songs.[42] Doug Jernigan became known for infusing country pedal steel with jazz, playing rapid single-note solos at fast speeds rivaling banjo and fiddle players. As a youth, Jernigan was befriended by Buddy Emmons, nine years his senior, who invited him to his home and customized Jernigan's steel to the "Nashville Setup"[43]: 36  Jernigan's interest in jazz led to record label (Flying Fish) pairing him with jazz guitarist Bucky Pizzarelli for a jazz album.[43]: 131  Jernigan said, "I explained to him [Pizzarelli] that I was basically a country player.[43]: 132  What we were trying to do was to show what the steel guitar can be, by teaming up me, a pedal steel guitarist, with a jazz player of the caliber of someone like him".[43]: 132  Jernigan prefers the C6 tuning which is better for jazz, but says "I have to play the E9 in Nashville — you know, for making money".[43]: 36 

A later generation of players pushed the instrument further into jazz and free improvisation. Susan Alcorn (1953–2025) became a leading voice in avant-garde and free-jazz pedal steel; her quintet album Pedernal (2020), with bassist Michael Formanek and guitarist Mary Halvorson, was named one of the year's best jazz albums (2020) by The New York Times.[44][45]

Rock and pop music

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Pedal steel crossed into rock and pop starting in the late 1960s, as country influences entered mainstream popular music.[17] Sneaky Pete Kleinow is widely credited as the first musician to bring pedal steel into a rock setting, first with The Byrds and then as a founding member of the Flying Burrito Brothers alongside Gram Parsons, whose vision of a "Cosmic American Music" blended country instrumentation with rock songwriting.[46] The Byrds' 1968 album Sweetheart of the Rodeo, a landmark recording in the emergence of country rock, featured session steel players Lloyd Green and JayDee Maness.[47][48][49]

In Nashville, Pete Drake became a sought-after session player whose understated approach made him a fixture on country and pop recordings through the 1960s and 1970s.[48] Drake played pedal steel on two tracks of Bob Dylan's 1967 album John Wesley Harding, recorded in Nashville, which helped draw wider pop and rock attention to the instrument.[48] On Dylan's recommendation, George Harrison later brought Drake to London to record pedal steel, including with a talk box effect, for several tracks on Harrison's 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass.[50]

Other steel players became closely identified with individual rock and pop acts. In the Eagles, multi-instrumentalist Bernie Leadon played pedal steel on early recordings including "Best of My Love," while Al Perkins, who also recorded with the Flying Burrito Brothers and Stephen Stills, contributed steel to some of the band's other 1970s sessions.[51]

Sacred steel

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In the United States in the 1930s, during the steel guitar's wave of popularity, the instrument was introduced into the House of God, a branch of an African-American Pentecostal denomination, based primarily in Nashville and Indianapolis. The steel guitar was embraced by the congregation and often took the place of an organ. The sound bore no resemblance to typical American country music.[52] The first documented use of a pedal (rather than lap) steel in this tradition was in 1952, but it did not become common until the early 1970s.[52]: 60  This musical genre, known as "Sacred Steel" was largely unknown until, in the 1980's Robert Randolph[53] popularized it and received critical acclaim.[54] Neil Strauss, writing in the New York Times, called Randolph "one of the most original and talented pedal steel guitarists of his generation.[55] Campbell Brothers are another American Sacred Steel gospel group from Rush, New York.The ensemble features pedal steel guitar and began as the house band for a House of God Keith Dominion congregation.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Theoretically, it was "possible" on a lap steel, but not possible to play it rapidly with perfect intonation; the pedal version was immediately recognizable.[27]: 190 

References

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  1. ↑ "Sample Tuning: S-10". The Steel Guitar Information Resource. Carter Steel Guitars. Retrieved July 28, 2026.
  2. 1 2 Brenner, Patrick. "Info for Beginner Steel Guitarists". Steel Guitar Academy. Retrieved July 28, 2026.
  3. ↑ Sierra Technical Manual (PDF). Sierra Steel Guitars. p. 5. Retrieved July 28, 2026.
  4. ↑ Carter Steel Guitar Owner's Manual (PDF). Carter Steel Guitars. August 1997. pp. 3–4. Retrieved July 28, 2026.
  5. ↑ "First-ever electric guitar patent awarded to the Electro String Corporation". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
  6. 1 2 "The Earliest Days of the Electric Guitar". rickenbacker.com. Rickenbacker International. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
  7. ↑ Teagle, John (September 1997). "Antique Guitar Amps 1928–1934". Vintage Guitar Magazine. Retrieved September 8, 2017.
  8. ↑ "Early History of the Steel Guitar". steelguitaracademy.com. Steel Guitar Academy. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  9. ↑ Foley, Hugh W. Jr. "Dunn, Robert Lee (1908–1971)". Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. Oklahoma Historical Society. Archived from the original on September 5, 2008. Retrieved September 10, 2017.
  10. ↑ Ginell, Cary (1994). Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Urbana, IL: Univ. of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02041-3.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cundell, R. Guy S. (July 2019). Across the South: The Origins and Development of the Steel Guitar in Western Swing (PDF) (PhD thesis). Adelaide, Australia: University of Adelaide. Retrieved November 29, 2020.
  12. 1 2 Brenner, Patrick. "Early History of the Steel Guitar". steelguitaramerica.com. Patrick Brenner. Retrieved June 29, 2017.
  13. ↑ Bechtel, Brad. "Common Tunings For Lap Steel Guitar". people.well.com. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
  14. ↑ Hayes, Brian (January 7, 2017). "Basic Slant Bar Technique for Slide Dobro". youtube.com. Retrieved July 7, 2026.
  15. ↑ Ellis, Andy (July 2, 2016). "Hand Jive! Master The Fundamentals Of Lap Steel". premierguitar.com. Premier Guitar Magazine. Retrieved July 22, 2026.
  16. 1 2 Meeker, Ward (November 2014). "Boggs' Quad". Vintage Guitar Magazine. Retrieved September 10, 2017.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Ross, Michael (February 17, 2015). "Pedal to the Metal: A Short History of the Pedal Steel Guitar". Premier Guitar Magazine. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
  18. ↑ Burns, Chelsea (July 1, 2019). ""Together Again," but We Keep On Crying: Buck Owens, Tom Brumley, and the Pedal Steel Guitar, 1964". Music Theory Online. 25 (2). Society for Music Theory. doi:10.30535/mto.25.2.2. Retrieved July 22, 2026.
  19. 1 2 Anderson, Maurice (2000). "Pedal Steel Guitar, Back and To the Future!". The Pedal Steel Pages. Retrieved September 16, 2017.
  20. 1 2 3 Seymour, Bobbe (April 30, 2012). "Early History of the Pedal Steel Guitar". pedalsteelmusic.com. Steel Guitar Nashville. Retrieved September 13, 2017.
  21. ↑ "Pedal Steel Guitar". countrymusichalloffame.com. Retrieved July 21, 2026.
  22. 1 2 Ross, Michael (November 17, 2011). "Forgotten Heroes: Paul Bigsby". Premier Guitar Magazine. Retrieved September 11, 2017.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Winston, Winnie; Keith, Bill (1975). Pedal steel guitar. New York: Oak Publications. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-8256-0169-9.
  24. ↑ "Eddie Kirk". allmusic.com. AllMusic, member of the RhythmOne group. Retrieved September 11, 2017.
  25. 1 2 Babiuk, Andy (2008). The Story of Paul Bigsby: The Father of the Modern Electric Solidbody Guitar (First ed.). Savannah: FG Publishing. ISBN 9780615243047.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Miller, Timothy D. (2013). Instruments as Technology and Culture: Co-constructing the Pedal Steel Guitar (PhD dissertation). University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. doi:10.17615/wp4f-rp39. Retrieved July 26, 2026.
  27. 1 2 Miller, Tim Sterner (2017). "This Machine Plays Country Music: Invention, Innovation, and the Pedal Steel Guitar". In Stimeling, Travis D. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Country Music. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-024817-8. Retrieved December 3, 2020.
  28. ↑ Zaleski, Annie (February 20, 2024). "70 years ago: Webb Pierce Hits No.1 with 'Slowly'". theboot.com. Townsquare Media, Inc. Retrieved July 7, 2026.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 Jarnow, Jesse (January 7, 2020). "The Endless Potential Of The Pedal Steel Guitar, An Odd Duck By Any Measure". npr.org. National Public Radio. Retrieved January 18, 2021.
  30. ↑ Betts, Stephen L. (July 30, 2015). "Steel Guitar Great Buddy Emmons Dies". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media. ISSN 0035-791X. OCLC 693532152. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
  31. ↑ Hurt, Edd (July 30, 2015). "Remembering Steel Guitar Innovator Buddy Emmons". Nashville Scene. SouthComm.
  32. ↑ "The Steel Guitar Hall of Fame / Inductees". scottysmusic.com. The Steel Guitar Hall of Fame, Inc. Retrieved February 21, 2021.
  33. ↑ Scott, Dewitt (1992). Back-Up Pedal Steel Guitar. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-61911-598-9.
  34. ↑ "What's This Part? Knee Levers". steelguitar.com. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
  35. ↑ Scott, Dewitt (2010). Anthology of Pedal Steel Guitar: E9 Chromatic Tuning. MelBay. ISBN 9781609749460. Retrieved April 11, 2021.
  36. ↑ Kurck, Charles (January 3, 2014). "E9 Charts". bb.steelguitarforum.com. Retrieved April 3, 2021.
  37. ↑ Brenner, Patrick (2011). "The Open Tuning". steelguitaramerica. Steel Guitar Academy. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
  38. 1 2 McDuffie, John Groover (October 28, 2010). "The Steel Guitar Forum/C6 vs E9". bb.steelguitarforum.com. Steel Guitar Forum. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
  39. ↑ Bell, Larry. "The E9/B6 Universal Tuning". larrybell.org. Larry Bell. Retrieved September 12, 2017.
  40. ↑ Dryden, Ken. "Steel Guitar Jazz Review". allmusic.com. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  41. ↑ Hurt, Edd (July 30, 2015). "Remembering Steel Guitar Innovator Buddy Emmons". Nashville Scene. SouthComm. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  42. ↑ Himes, Geoffrey (April 20, 2024). "The Pedal Steel Guitar Slides into Jazz". jazztimes.com. Jazz Times. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 Eastman, Bud (December 1, 1978). "Doug Jernigan". Guitar Player. 12, No. 12 (December, 1978).
  44. ↑ Russonello, Giovanni (December 2, 2020). "Best Jazz Albums of 2020". The New York Times. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  45. ↑ "Pedal Steel Guitarist Susan Alcorn Dies at 71". DownBeat. February 18, 2025. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  46. ↑ "The Unsung Heroes of Americana – The Pedal Steel Guitar". Americana UK. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  47. ↑ "10 pedal steel guitar players you should know". Mixdown Magazine. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  48. 1 2 3 "Men of Steel – About". Men of Steel. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  49. ↑ Himpele, Jeff (January 2011). "Making a Film About a Sound: The Steel Guitar from Hawaii to the Honky-Tonk". Anthropology News. 52 (1). American Anthropological Association: 4, 66. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  50. ↑ "All Things Must Pass (song)". The Beatles Bible. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  51. ↑ "Bernie Leadon's Copedent?". The Steel Guitar Forum. Retrieved August 2, 2026.
  52. 1 2 Stone, Robert L. (2010). Sacred steel : inside an African American steel guitar tradition. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0252-03554-8.
  53. ↑ Meeker, Ward (September 1, 2013). "Robert Randolph The Sacred Steel, Family, and SRV". vintage guitar.com. Vintage Guitar Magazine. Retrieved July 21, 2026.
  54. ↑ Hansen, Liane; Wharton, Ned (August 5, 2001). "Heavenly 'Sacred Steel'". npr.org. NPR. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
  55. ↑ Strauss, Neil (April 30, 2001). "Making Spirits Rock From Church to Clubland; A Gospel Pedal Steel Guitarist Dives Into Pop". The New York Times. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
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