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Khwarshi language

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Khwarshi
Khwarshi–Inkhoqwari
аᴴкьи́зас мыц aⁿƛ̓ízas myc
kedaes hikwa
Pronunciation[ãt͡ɬʼizas mɨt͡s]
[kedaes hikwa]
Native toNorth Caucasus
RegionSouthwestern Dagestan[1][2]
EthnicityKhwarshi people
Native speakers
3,300 (2020 census)[3]
8,500 (2005-2009)[4]
Northeast Caucasian
Dialects
Language codes
ISO 639-3khv
Glottologkhva1239
ELPKhvarshi
  Khwarshi
Khvarshi is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Khwarshi (also spelled Xvarshi, Khvarshi, Khvarshi: аᴴкьи́зас мыц[6]) is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken in the Tsumadinsky-, Kizilyurtovsky- and Khasavyurtovsky districts of Dagestan by the Khwarshi people. The exact number of speakers is not known, but the linguist Zaira Khalilova, who has carried out fieldwork in the period from 2005 to 2009, gives the figure 8,500.[4] Other sources give much lower figures, such as Ethnologue with the figure 1,870[1] and the latest population census of Russia with the figure 3,296.[3] The low figures are because many Khwarshi have registered themselves as being Avar speakers,[4] because Avar is their literary language.

There are six dialects of the Khwarshi language based on their geographical distribution. The dialects are: Upper and Lower Inkhokwari, Kwantlada, Santlada, Khwayni and Khwarshi Proper, originating in their respective villages in the Tsumadinsky district. Due to emigration, Kwantlada-, Upper and Lower Inkhokwari–speaking communities also exist in Oktyabrskoe,[clarification needed] Santlada-speaking communities exist in Pervomayskoe and Khwarshi Proper–speaking communities exist in Mutsalaul.

Phonology

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The phoneme inventory of Khwarshi is large, with about 87 distinct phonemes. Notable phonological processes include assimilation, vowel harmony, and nasalization occurring.[7] The syllabic structure of Khwarshi is also quite simple, with (C)V(C) being the most common structure, of which V(C) is only permitted word-initially.[8]

Vowels

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Khwarshi has a total number of 21 vowel phonemes, including vowel length and nasalization.[9]

Front Central Back
Close i ɨ u
Close-mid e o
Open a

All the vowels above also have a long counterpart, which are always in stressed syllables. All vowels can occur in closed syllables (i.e. (C)VC), and all except /ɨ/ occur in open syllables (i.e. (C)V). /ɨ/ does not occur in the Khwarshi Proper and Inkhokwari dialects.[10]

Front Back
Close ĩ ũ
Close-mid ẽ õ
Open ã
  • All the nasal vowels above except /ĩ/ have a long counterpart.
  • There is no nasalized version of /ɨ/.
  • The Khwarshi Proper dialect does not have nasalized vowels and replaces these with their non-nasalized counterparts.

Consonants

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Khwarshi has 66 consonants:[9]

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
central lateral
plain phar. plain lab. plain lab. pal. plain lab. plain lab. phar. plain lab. phar. phar.+lab. plain phar.
Nasal m mˤ n
Plosive voiceless p pˤ t (tʷ) k kʷ kˤ q qʷ qˤ
voiced b bˤ d dʷ g gʷ gˤ
ejective pʼ pˤʼ tʼ tʷʼ kʼ kʷʼ kˤʼ qʼ qʷʼ qˤʼ qˤʷʼ
Affricate voiceless t͡s t͡ɬ t͡ʃ
ejective t͡sʼ t͡sʷʼ t͡ɬʼ t͡ɬʷʼ t͡ʃʼ t͡ʃʷʼ
Fricative voiceless s sʷ ɬ ʃ ʃʷ x χ χʷ χˤ χˤʷ ħ h hˤ
voiced z zʷ ʒ ʒʷ ʁ ʁʷ ʁˤ ʁˤʷ ʕ
Trill r
Approximant l lʲ j w

It is not clear whether /tʷ/ is present in Khwarshi or not, as Zaira Khalilova does not include it in her chart of consonants, but nevertheless provides a minimal pair indicating there is a distinction between /t/ and /tʷ/: /eta/ "touch" and /etʷa/ "fly".[11] Therefore, it is shown in parentheses in the chart above.

All the consonants can be found in native vocabulary, but some of them are however more rare than others, and some are mostly found in loanwords, such as /ʕ/ which almost only occur in loanwords of Arabic origin. Another example is /x/, found only in loanwords of Avar origin.[12]

The palatalized consonant and all the pharyngealized consonants are not found in Khwarshi Proper, but can be found in all the other dialects. Consider for instance the Khwarshi Proper word /χililːu/ "drunk", which in the other dialects is /χˤilʲilʲːu/.[13]

Gemination

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Gemination is quite a common phonological process in Khwarshi, caused by grammatical processes. Gemination only occurs intervocally and not all consonants geminate. Which consonants that geminate is different according to which processes they are a part of, and it depends on the dialect as well.[14]

Below is a list of some of the processes causing gemination:

  • When suffixing the past participle-ending /-u/ to a verbal stem ending in a consonant, the final consonant is geminated, e.g. /lat͡sʼ-a/ "to eat" > /lat͡sʼ-ːu/ "eaten".
  • When suffixing the present tense-ending, which generally is /-ʃe/, the final consonant is geminated, e.g. /lat͡sʼ-a/ "to eat" > /lat͡s-ːe/ "eat-pres". Notice that ejectivization is lost with the present tense-ending, while it is kept with the past participle-ending.
  • When suffixing the verbal noun-ending /-nu/ to a verbal stem, the verbal noun-ending is geminated - not the final consonant, e.g. /tʼa-ja/ "to drop" > /tʼa-nːu/ "something which has been dropped".
  • When infixing the potential marker /-l-/ to a verbal stem, the potential marker is geminated, e.g. /tʼa-ja/ "to drop" > /tʼa-lː-a/ "to potentially drop".
  • When emphasis is needed, the consonants of some words may be geminated, e.g. /ʕezeʕan/ "much" > /ʕezːeʕan/ "much indeed". It is highly idiomatic though, and does not apply to all words.

In loanwords, geminated consonants are normally non-geminated, when adopted into the Khwarshi language. For example, the Avar word /kʼːara/ "mosquito" is found as /kʼara/ in Khwarshi. The same goes for words of Tindi origin such as /kʼːanu/ "small", which is found as /kʼanu/ in Khwarshi. Another interesting aspect of loanwords of Tindi origin in the Khwarshi language is that the consonants are ejectivized when they enter the Khwarshi language, e.g. Tindi /t͡sːikʷːa/ "small intestine" > Khwarshi /t͡sʼikʷʼa/.[15]

Alphabet

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А а Б б В в Г г Гъ гъ Гь гь ГӀ гӀ Д д
Е е Ж ж З з И и Й й К к Къ къ Кь кь
КӀ кӀ Л л Лъ лъ ЛӀ лӀ М м Н н О о П п
ПӀ пӀ Р р С с Т т ТӀ тӀ У у Х х Хъ хъ
Хь хь ХӀ хӀ Ц ц ЦӀ цӀ Ч ч ЧӀ чӀ Ш ш Ъ ъ
Ы ы Ь ь Э э

Additional letters: аᵸ, аӀ, еᵸ, еӀ, иᵸ, иӀ, ль, оᵸ, оӀ, уᵸ, уӀ, эᵸ

Grammar

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Nouns

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Khwarshi nouns inflect for case, of which there are 51, and number, singular or plural, and belong to one of five genders, or rather noun classes. That a noun belongs to a specific class cannot be seen on the noun itself, but only through agreement.

Noun classes

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There are five noun classes in the singular, but only a distinction between human and non-human in the plural, the male human and female human having merged into human, and the remaining classes into non-human.[16]

Class Description Singular Plural
Prefix Infix Suffix Prefix Infix Suffix
I Male human ∅-2 ⟨w⟩ -w b-, m-1 ⟨b⟩ -b
II Female human j- ⟨j⟩ -j
III Inanimate objects,
and animals		 b-, m-1 ⟨b⟩ -b l-, n-1 ⟨r⟩ -l
IV Inanimate objects,
and animate objects		 l-, n-1 ⟨r⟩ -l
V Inanimate objects,
and names of young		 j- ⟨j⟩ -j
  1. Only before nasalized vowels.
  2. ∅- indicates the lack of a prefix.

Loanwords are typically assigned to noun class III or IV. Older loanwords from Arabic and Persian are usually in noun class III (e.g., askar, "troops, army"), and loans from Russian and international words are in noun class IV (e.g., komputer, restoran "restaurant").[17]

The noun classes are visible through agreement in adjectives, adverbs, postpositions and demonstrative pronouns, and also verbs if the verb begins with a vowel. There are, however, some exceptions, like with irregular verbs in other languages. Below are some examples of such agreement.[18]

milʲ:o

2PL.GEN2

b-otɬotɬ'o

III-in.middle

hẽše

book.III

gul-o

put.IMP

milʲ:o b-otɬotɬ'o hẽše gul-o

2PL.GEN2 III-in.middle book.III put.IMP

"Put the book between you!"

owenu

that

žik'o

man

ø-ot'q'-i

I-come-PSTW

lʲ-lʲo

1PL.OBL-GEN2

atɬ-a

village-IN

owenu žik'o ø-ot'q'-i lʲ-lʲo atɬ-a

that man I-come-PSTW 1PL.OBL-GEN2 village-IN

"That man came to our village"

b-eč-un-tɬo

HPL-be-PSTUW-NARR

b-eč-un-aj-tɬo

HPL-be-PSTUW-NEG-NARR

bercina-b

beautiful-HPL

kandaba

girl.PL.ABS

b-eč-un-tɬo b-eč-un-aj-tɬo bercina-b kandaba

HPL-be-PSTUW-NARR HPL-be-PSTUW-NEG-NARR beautiful-HPL girl.PL.ABS

"Once upon a time there were beautiful girls"

Cases

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There are 8 grammatical cases in Khwarshi, and 43 locative, or spatial, cases. The grammatical cases are: absolutive, ergative, two genitive, instrumental, durative, vocative and causal. The spatial cases consist of one suffix relating to orientation, and a second suffix relating to direction.

Below are the case endings of the grammatical cases.[19]

Absolutive Ergative Genitive 1 Genitive 2 Instrumental Durative Vocative Causal
-∅ -(j)i -s -lo, -la -z -d -ju -t͡ɬeru


Below are the case endings of the locative cases.

Essive Lative Versative Ablative Translative Terminative
Superessive -t͡ɬʼo -t͡ɬʼo-l -t͡ɬʼo-ʁul -t͡ɬʼo-zi -t͡ɬʼo-ʁuʒaz -t͡ɬʼo-qʼa
Subessive -t͡ɬ -t͡ɬ-ul -t͡ɬ-ʁul -t͡ɬ-zi -t͡ɬ-ʁuʒaz -t͡ɬ-qʼa
Inessive -ma -ma-l -ma-ʁul -ma-zi -ma-ʁuʒaz -ma-qʼa
Interessive -ɬ -ɬ-ul -ɬ-ʁul -ɬ-zi -ɬ-ʁuʒaz -ɬ-qʼa
Adessive -ho -ho-l -ho-ʁul -ho-zi -ho-ʁuʒaz -ho-qʼa
Apudessive -ʁo -ʁo-l -ʁo-ʁul -ʁo-zi -ʁo-ʁuʒaz -ʁo-qʼa
Contessive -qo -qo-l -qo-ʁul -qo-zi -qo-ʁuʒaz -qo-qʼa

Verbs

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Khwarshi verbs normally consist of a stem, an agreement prefix indicating noun class and number of the relevant nouns, and a suffix showing tense, aspect, mood, or the like. Only about one fourth of the Khwarshi verbs show agreement, all of them beginning with a vowel. There is a small number of verbs beginning with a vowel that do not show agreement. Verbs beginning with a consonant do not show agreement.[20]

The verbs are very regular in Khwarshi, the only irregular verb being the auxiliary verb goli "to be", which takes neither a prefix nor a suffix and has only several non-finite forms. In the past- and future tense, however, the verb /-et͡ʃ-/ "to be situated" is used instead of goli, which may take both a prefix and a suffix.[21]

References

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Notes

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  1. 1 2 "Ethnologue entry for Khwarshi". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 2012-07-21.
  2. ↑ "Ethnologue map of European Russia, Khwarshi is in the inset with references number 21". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 2012-07-21.
  3. 1 2 Том 5. «Национальный состав и владение языками». Таблица 7. Население наиболее многочисленных национальностей по родному языку
  4. 1 2 3 Khalilova 2009, p. 3.
  5. ↑ Schulze, Wolfgang (2009), The Languages of the Caucasus (PDF), archived from the original on 2012-03-05
  6. ↑ "Электронная версия словаря хваршинского языка". lingconlab.github.io. Retrieved 2024-08-31.
  7. ↑ Khalilova (2009), pp. 25-30
  8. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 31.
  9. 1 2 Khalilova 2009, p. 14.
  10. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 23.
  11. ↑ Khalilova (2009), pp. 17-18
  12. ↑ Khalilova (2009), p. 15
  13. ↑ Khalilova (2009), pp. 16, 19
  14. ↑ Khalilova (2009), p. 20
  15. ↑ Khalilova (2009), p. 22
  16. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 45.
  17. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 47.
  18. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 41-43.
  19. ↑ Khalilova 2009, p. 75.
  20. ↑ Khalilova (2009), pp. 181-182
  21. ↑ Khalilova (2009), pp. 182-183

General

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