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Southern cassowary

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Southern cassowaries)

Southern cassowary
Wild individual seen in Etty Bay, Queensland, Australia
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Infraclass: Palaeognathae
Order: Casuariiformes
Family: Casuariidae
Genus: Casuarius
Species:
C. casuarius
Binomial name
Casuarius casuarius
Native distribution of the southern cassowary

The southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), also known as double-wattled cassowary, Australian cassowary, or two-wattled cassowary, is a large, flightless, mostly black bird, found in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and northeastern Australia. It is one of the three living species of cassowary, alongside the dwarf cassowary and the northern cassowary. It is a ratite and therefore related to the emu, ostrich, rhea and kiwi. Southern cassowaries are among the largest birds in the world, only weighing less than ostriches.[3][4]

The Australian population is listed as Endangered under federal and Queensland state legislation.

Taxonomy

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Presently, most authorities consider the southern cassowary monotypic, but several subspecies have been described.[5] It has proven very difficult to confirm the validity of these due to individual variations, age-related variations, the relatively few available specimens (and the bright skin of the head and neck – the basis upon which several subspecies have been described – fades in specimens), and that locals are known to have traded live cassowaries for hundreds, if not thousands of years, some of which are likely to have escaped/been deliberately introduced to regions away from their origin.[5]

Cassowaries are the sister lineage of emus, both being in the family casuariidae.[4]

The binomial name Casuarius casuarius is derived from its Malay name kesuari.[6] The southern cassowary was first described by Carl Linnaeus, in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae, as Struthio casuarius,[7] from a specimen from Seram, in 1758.[8] It is now the type species of the genus Casuarius.[8] Common names for the species include southern cassowary, double-wattled cassowary, Australian cassowary,[2] and two-wattled cassowary.[8]

The southern cassowary has been described under a large number of scientific names, all of which are now considered taxonomic synonyms for the species.[9]

Description

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Phenotypic diversity of the head

The adult southern cassowary has stiff, bristly black plumage, a blue face and a long neck, red on the cape and two red wattles measuring up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in length hanging down around its throat. A horn-like brown casque, measuring 13 to 20 cm (5.1 to 7.9 in) high, sits atop the head. The bill can range from 9.8 to 19 cm (3.9 to 7.5 in). The plumage is sexually monomorphic, but the female is dominant and larger with a longer casque, larger bill and brighter-coloured bare parts. Plumage of the southern cassowary develops as it grows, juveniles with soft, fuzzy and striped plumage for the first few months. Immature birds are covered in hair-like brown plumage, and as they grow, the feathers darken.[4]

The three-toed feet are thick and powerful, equipped with a lethal dagger-like claw up to 12 cm (4.7 in) on the inner toe. Southern cassowaries are among the largest living birds, only being lighter on average than ostriches,[3] the largest contemporary individuals have been recorded around 85 kg (187 lb) and 2 m (6 ft 6+1⁄2 in) tall.[10][11][12] Typically, the bird stands 1.5–1.8 m (4.9–5.9 ft) in height.[13] Male southern cassowaries are lighter than the females, weighing between 29.2–55 kg (64–121 lb).[14][10] Adult female birds can weigh from 46.7 kg (103 lb) to 76 kg (168 lb).[10][11]

From 1870 to 1894, Archibald Meston, Robert Johnstone, and others had shot, weighed, and documented southern cassowaries in Queensland that far exceeded typical mass. These specimens ranged in mass from 168–263 lb (76–119 kg).[15][16][17] In 1889, Meston claimed the specimen shot by John Nairne was weighed at 263 lb (119 kg)[18] although he later cited the figure as 280 lb (130 kg) and 250 lb (110 kg).[19][17] Meston had written, "there is no reason to suppose that was the largest living specimen" in reference to this specimen.[19]

With powerful legs, the southern cassowary can run at speeds of up to 50 km/h (31 mph) and jump nearly 2 m (6.6 ft) vertically. They are strong swimmers capable of moving across rivers and streams.[4]

Research

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In 2026, scientists discovered that southern cassowary casques glow under ultraviolet light, and in different patterns than northern cassowary casques.[20]

Range and habitat

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The southern cassowary is distributed in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and northeastern Australia.[21] It mainly inhabits tropical rainforests but may make use of nearby savannah forests or mangroves stands.[1] The species prefers elevations below 1,100 m (3,600 ft) in Australia,[8] and 500 m (1,600 ft) in New Guinea.[1]

As of 2018, according to Birdlife International, the breeding populations were as follows:[1]

Breeding population and trends
LocationPopulationTrend
Southern New GuineaUnknownDeclining
Seram, IndonesiaUnknownUnknown
Aru Islands, IndonesiaUnknownUnknown
Northeastern Australia1,500 to 2,500Declining
Paluma Range, Qld, AustraliaUnknownDeclining
McIlwraith Range, Qld, Australia1,000+Declining
Apudthama National Park, Qld, AustraliaUnknownUnknown
Total4,000+Declining

Diet

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Adult male with two chicks

Southern cassowaries forage on the forest floor for fallen fruit and seeds and are capable of safely digesting some fruits and seeds toxic to other animals. They also eat fungi, and some insects, other invertebrates (such as snails), small vertebrates (such as fish, frogs, small birds and their eggs and nestlings, and small mammals), and carrion. When food is scarce, both wild and captive cassowaries have been seen to ingest earth, perhaps seeking supplementary minerals.[22] Inspection of the faeces reveals that commonly ingested fruits are Davidsonia pruriens, Syzygium divaricatum, and members of the palm (Arecaceae), quandong (Elaeocarpaceae), laurel (Lauraceae), and myrtle (Myrtaceae) families.[23][22]

Behavior

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Southern cassowaries make a thunderous call during mating season, and hissing and rumblings otherwise. Chicks will make frequent high-pitched contact whistles and chirps to call the male.[1]

Breeding

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Egg at Museum Wiesbaden

The southern cassowary is a solitary bird, which pairs only in breeding season, in late winter or spring (but highly variable[4]). The male builds a nest on the ground,[8] a mattress of herbaceous plant material 5 to 10 centimetres (2–4 in) thick and up to 100 centimetres (39 in) wide. This is thick enough to let moisture drain away from the eggs. The male also incubates the eggs and raises the chicks alone. A clutch of three to five eggs are laid measuring 11.8–15.8 cm (4.6–6.2 in) in length and 8.2–10.2 cm (3.2–4.0 in) in width, with a mass of around 567–634 g (1.250–1.398 lb).[24] They have a granulated surface and are initially bright pea-green in colour although they fade with age.[25][8] The incubation period takes around 50 days.[4]

Chicks hatch precocial, fully feathered, and able to move and explore within hours of hatching. Parental care is done solely by the male, who the chicks depend on for survival. Young birds typically become independent at 9–12 months of age. It will take around 4–5 years for the casque and adult plumage to fully develop, this is also the time in which successful breeding usually starts.[4]

Interaction with humans

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Silhouette comparison of the relative sizes of an adult man and a cassowary. The cassowary's head is at about shoulder height.
Full-grown southern cassowary compared to an adult man
Detail of feet showing spearlike inner claw

Southern cassowaries have a reputation for being dangerous to humans and other animals, and are often regarded as aggressive. The birds can jump quite high and kick powerfully with their blade-like claws. However, deadly encounters with southern cassowaries are rare. Only two human deaths have been reported since 1900. A 2003 historical study of 221 southern cassowary attacks showed that 150 had been against humans: 75% of these had been from southern cassowaries that had been fed by people, 71% of the time the bird had chased or charged the victim, 15% of the time they kicked. Of the attacks, 73% involved the birds expecting or snatching food, 5% involved defending their natural food sources, 15% involved defending themselves from attack, and 7% involved defending their chicks or eggs. Only one human death was reported among those 150 attacks.[26]

The first documented human death caused by a southern cassowary was on 6 April 1926. In Australia, 16-year-old Phillip McClean and his brother, age 13, came across a southern cassowary on their property and decided to try and kill it by striking it with clubs. The bird kicked the younger boy, who fell and ran away as his older brother struck the bird. The older McClean then tripped and fell to the ground. While he was on the ground, the cassowary kicked him in the neck, opening a 1.25 cm (0.5 in) wound that may have severed his jugular vein. The boy died of his injuries shortly thereafter.[27]

Another human death due to a southern cassowary was recorded in Florida, United States on 12 April 2019. The bird's owner, a 75-year-old man who had raised the animal, was apparently clawed to death after he fell to the ground.[28]

Feeding by humans can draw cassowaries to human-inhabited areas, increasing the risk of vehicle strikes, a major cause of southern cassowary mortality, and increasing the likelihood of encounters with humans.[29]

In a 2017 Australian Birdlife article, Karl Brandt suggested Aboriginal encounters with the southern cassowary may have inspired the myth of the bunyip.[30]

Conservation

[edit]

Although subject to ongoing habitat loss (some due to logging), limited range, and overhunting in some areas, the southern cassowary was evaluated as Least concern in 2018 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Other threats include feral animals eating their eggs and roadkill.[1][8] Road-building, feral animals and hunting are the worst of these threats. It has an occurrence range of 396,000 km2 (153,000 sq mi), and between 10,000 and 20,000 birds were estimated in a 2002 study, with between 1,500 and 2,500 in Australia.[1]

The Queensland (Australia) Department of Transport and Main Roads trialed a system using AI to detect the presence of these birds near a roadway coupled with warning signs. This may have resulted in reduction in fatal accidents of as much as a third, though the data may have been confounded by a speed limit reduction around the same time.[31]

The Australian population is listed as Endangered under federal (EPBC Act). Under the Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020 (Queensland), November 2022 list, the northern population is considered vulnerable, while the southern population remains as endangered.[2] A draft recovery plan to save the species was published by the federal government in June 2023, at which time there were estimated to be around 5,000 individuals in Australia.[32] A study published in Biological Conservation in March 2023 listed 23 species which the authors considered to no longer meet the criteria as threatened species under the EPBC Act, including the Southern cassowary. A 2021 study had shown that extensive reservation had led to recovery of the species, and legislation had prevented the previously rapid loss of habitat. The reason for their assessment was given as "Populations now stable or declining at a rate less than threshold".[33] The team, led by John Woinarski of Charles Darwin University looked at all species listed as threatened under the act in 2000 and 2022.[34]

Southern cassowaries have been bred in zoos around the world, including White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida, United States.[35]

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See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 BirdLife International (2018). "Casuarius casuarius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018 e.T22678108A131902050. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22678108A131902050.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 "Casuarius casuarius johnsonii — Southern Cassowary, Australian Cassowary, Double-wattled Cassowary". Species Profile and Threats Database. Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Australian Government. 7 July 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2023. Text may have been copied from this source, which is available under a Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY 3.0 AU) licence.
  3. 1 2 Dunning, John Barnard, ed. (2008). CRC handbook of avian body masses (2nd ed.). Boca Raton {: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Healy, Timothy P. (15 July 2022), Billerman, Shawn M.; Keeney, Brooke K.; Rodewald, Paul G.; Schulenberg, Thomas S. (eds.), "Southern Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius)", Birds of the World, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, doi:10.2173/bow.soucas1.02, retrieved 17 June 2026
  5. 1 2 Davies, S. J. J. F. (2002). Ratites and Tinamous. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854996-2.
  6. ↑ Gotch, A.F. (1995) [1979]. "Cassowaries". Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File. pp. 178–179. ISBN 0-8160-3377-3.
  7. ↑ Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 155. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. S. pedibus tridactylís, vertice palearibusque nudis
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Cassowaries". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 Birds I Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 75–79. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0.
  9. ↑ Peron, Richard. "Taxonomy of the Genus Casuarius". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  10. 1 2 3 Latch, P (2007). "National recovery plan for the southern cassowary Casuarius casuarius johnsonii" (PDF).
  11. 1 2 Bentrupperbaumer, Joan (1997). Reciprocal ecosystem impact and behavioural interactions between cassowaries, Casuarius casuarius, and humans, homo sapiens: exploring the natural-human environment interface and its implications for endangered species recovery in North Queensland, Australia (phd thesis). James Cook University.
  12. ↑ Romer, Liz (1997). "Cassowary husbandry manual". Currumbin Sanctuary Conservation Unit.
  13. ↑ Taylor, Sue (2012). John Gould's Extinct and Endangered Birds of Australia. National Library Australia. p. 6. ISBN 9780642277657.
  14. ↑ Crome, F. H. J. (January 1976). "Some Observations on the Biology of the Cassowary in Northern Queensland". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 76 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1071/MU9760008. ISSN 0158-4197.
  15. ↑ CARDWELL. (1870, September 24). Mackay Mercury and South Kennedy Advertiser (Qld. : 1867 - 1887), p. 3. Retrieved July 8, 2026, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article169702229
  16. ↑ CASSOWARY SHOOTING IN QUEENSLAND. (1870, July 27). Evening News (Sydney, NSW : 1869 - 1931), p. 4. Retrieved July 8, 2026, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article107134179
  17. 1 2 Meston, Archibald (1894). "On the Australian Cassowary. (Casuarius australis)". The Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland. 10: 59–64. doi:10.5962/p.351210. ISSN 0080-469X.
  18. ↑ INTERCOLONIAL. (1889, September 28). Leader (Melbourne, Vic. : 1862 - 1918, 1935), p. 16. Retrieved July 8, 2026, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article198057028
  19. 1 2 Field Shooting in Queensland. (1891, February 14). The Boomerang (Brisbane, Qld. : 1887 - 1892), p. 6. Retrieved July 8, 2026, from http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article293613832
  20. ↑ Green, Todd L.; Watanabe, Akinobu; Berman, Jonathan M.; Granatosky, Michael C.; Gignac, Paul M. (24 February 2026). "Ultraviolet light illuminates species-specific biofluorescent casque patterns in cassowaries (Casuarius)". Scientific Reports. 16 (1): 10302. doi:10.1038/s41598-026-40230-1. ISSN 2045-2322. Retrieved 27 April 2026.
  21. ↑ Clements, James (2007). The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World (6th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4501-9.
  22. 1 2 Healy, T. P. (2022). Billerman, Shawn M. (ed.). "Southern Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius)". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.soucas1.02.
  23. ↑ "Casuarius casuarius (Southern cassowary)". Animal Diversity Web.
  24. ↑ Schmitt, Edward C.; Vere, Paul A. Ly (1981). "Cassowaries". AFA Watchbird. 8 (1): 34–37.
  25. ↑ Beruldsen, G (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Qld: self. p. 156. ISBN 0-646-42798-9.
  26. ↑ Kofron, Christopher P. (December 1999). "Attacks to humans and domestic animals by the southern cassowary (Casuarius casuarius johnsonii) in Queensland, Australia". Journal of Zoology. 249 (4): 375–81. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01206.x.
  27. ↑ Kofron, Christopher P. (2003). "Case histories of attacks by the southern cassowary in Queensland". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 49 (1): 335–8.
  28. ↑ Hackney, Deanna; McLaughlin, Eliott C. (14 April 2019). "A cassowary, a rare emu-like bird, attacks and kills Florida man, officials say". CNN. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  29. ↑ Kofron, Christopher P.; Chapman, Angela (2006). "Causes of mortality to the endangered Southern Cassowary Casuarius casuariusjohnsonii in Queensland, Australia". Pacific Conservation Biology. 12 (3): 175–179. doi:10.1071/PC060175.
  30. ↑ Brandt, Karl (June 2017). "Bunyip Hunters". Australian Birdlife. 6 (2): 10.
  31. ↑ "Cassowary road deaths fall in innovative camera trial". ABC News. 30 July 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2026.
  32. ↑ Sexton-McGrath, Kristy (28 June 2023). "Push to save southern cassowary, Australia's 'living dinosaur', in federal draft recovery plan". ABC News (Australia). Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  33. ↑ Woinarski, John C.Z.; Garnett, Stephen T.; et al. (2023). "Lights at the end of the tunnel: The incidence and characteristics of recovery for Australian threatened animals". Biological Conservation. 279 109946. Elsevier BV. Bibcode:2023BCons.27909946W. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109946. ISSN 0006-3207.
  34. ↑ "Researchers find 26 Australian species recovered from the brink of extinction". ABC News. 24 February 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  35. ↑ "Double-Wattled Cassowary". Retrieved 21 June 2013.
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