// Workers AI · dad joke modeWhat did the Principality of Zhane say? "I reign supreme.

Principality of Zhane Жанэ Пщыгъо (Adyghe)
c. late middle ages–1802 (de facto) / 1830s (de jure)
The tamga of the Bechqan princely house which ruled Zhane
Seal of Prince Netakhoqo Zan (1827)
"Giana" represents the Zhane territory on this 1681 map by Guillaume Sanson, Estats de l'Empire du Grand Seigneur des Turcs.
Status	Principality
Common languages	Adyghe (Zhane dialect)
Religion	Paganism & Eastern Orthodoxy (until 16th c.) Sunni Islam (Hanafi) (16th c. – 1830s)
Demonym	Zhane
Pshi (Prince)
• late middle ages	Zan / Zhane
• fl. 1460s–1470s	Barasbiyeqo
• fl. 1538–1551	Qanshawuq
• fl. 1555–1563	Siboq
• fl. 1638–1666	Antonuq
• fl. 1787–1826	Mishawost Melichdjeriy
• fl. 1800s–1830s	Netakhoqo Zan
History
• Established	c. late middle ages
• Accepted Ottoman Suzerainty and Sanjak Status	1539–1555
• Alliance with Ivan IV	1555–1562
• Ottoman reintegration	1560s–18th c.
• Destroyed during the Russo-Circassian War	1802 (de facto) / 1830s (de jure)
Population
• 1650–1700 estimate	200,000
• c. 1830	400–1,200
Currency	Kara Akçe Akçe
Preceded by Succeeded by Zichia Russian Empire
Today part of	Russia (Krasnodar Krai)

The Principality of Zhane (Adyghe: Жанэ Пщыгъо) was a Circassian principality in Circassia inhabited by the Zhane, a Circassian sub-ethnic group. During the 16th and 17th centuries, it was one of the largest and most powerful principality in Western Circassia. Their lands were a constant battlefield for centuries and this weakened them. During the Russo-Circassian War, Russian military operations and plague further reduced their population.

In 1802, a campaign by Black Sea Cossacks of the Russian Empire destroyed the remaining settlements and ended the political independence of the principality. Prince Netakhoqo Zan later tried to reunite the survivors into a single settlement. Following his death in the early 1830s, the majority integrated into the Bzhedug, Shapsug, and Natukhaj sub-ethnic groups.

History

Formation

Sanig migration hypothesis

Some scholars propose an origin theory that links the Zhane people to the ancient Sanigs, though this connection is unproven. According to this hypothesis, researchers Adolf Berzhe, L.I. Lavrov, N.G. Volkova, and B.Kh. Bgazhnokov propose that the Zhane were Sanigs who migrated from Transcaucasia to the Northwest Caucasus between the late 3rd and early 4th centuries due to Roman expansion. The migrants initially settled near Nicopsis and Dzhubga before advancing toward Gelendzhik, Tsemez, and Anapa. The theory posits a population split: those who migrated north became the Zhane, while those who stayed in their original territory formed the Sadz community, located between Circassian and Abkhazian lands.

Pre-Inal hypothesis

The origin of the Zhane is associated with the 15th century Principality of Copa by Samir Khotko, located in the center of what later became Zhane territory. Administrative records from Caffa in 1460s and 1470s might indicate that Copa was managed as a feudal estate by Prince "Berzebuk" (possibly Barasabiyeqo in Adyghe), whose lineage is identified by Khotko as the foundational component of the Zhane ruling structure before the 16th century. Barasabiyeqo had built a stone castle in Copa and was a wealthy ruler during his reign.

Khotko proposes a theory that the Zhane princes did not descend from Inal, suggesting instead that they might have had older or independent origins compared to other Circassian dynasties. According to this hypothesis, Russian records from 1552 and 1555 that describe the Zhane envoy princes to Moscow as sovereigns could possibly suggest a distinct status for this lineage within Circassia.

Etnographer Sultan Khan-Giray states that the Kabardian, Besleney, Chemguy, Hatuqay, and partially Kheghache princes descended from Inal. However the Zhane is described as an indigenous or ancient Circassian group that was present in the area before Inal's descendants arrived. Yu. E. Asanov proposed a hypothesis that the Zhane princes were related to the Bzhedug princes.

Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi recorded a legend tracing Circassian lineages to the Arab Quraysh tribe. This group included Kheghache, Hatuqay, Zhane, Besleney, and Kabardians. This narrative originated in 14th century Mamluk Egypt, where historians constructed Arab genealogies to legitimate Circassian rule over Arab populations. The tradition later integrated into Caucasian local lore. In one local version, five princely brothers left Arabia along with their subjects. These brothers were: Cheleshbiy, Zan, Makay, Boletuqo, and Hatuqo.

Legends of Inal's descent

Attributed crown of Inal

Inal is a legendary figure who is considered to be the founder of several Circassian princely dynasties in tradition. According to the legend compiled by ethnographer Shora Nogmov, three prince brothers from Chemguy who were direct descendants of Inal; Boletuqo, Zan and Hatuqo. The younger brothers, Zan and Hatuqo, wanted to separate from the eldest brother, Boletuqo. Zan gathered people from various societies to join him and asked Boletuqo for permission to migrate to new lands. Boletuqo agreed and allowed a portion of the people to leave. Zan and his subjects moved to the area where the Pshish River meets the Kuban River, taking the name Zhane of the principality. Hatuqo also departed to settle in a newly chosen and took the name Hatuqay of the principality. Boletuqo remained in the original territory with the majority of the population and retained the Chemguy name.

According to other popular oral traditions, the origin of the Zhane princes was one of Inal's son named Zhane or Zan.

According to Khotko's analysis, Inal may have lived at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. If the Zhane princes descended from him as tradition suggests and Khotko's analysis is accurate, the principality was established in the early 14th century.

Medieval period

Italian maritime charts from the 13th to the 15th centuries show a territory marked as Saunacichia or Alba Zega (White Zichia). Some researchers theorize that these names might connect to the early origins or precursors of the Zhane, though this identification remains unproven. The locations recorded as "Sania" in the 1311 and 1318 Italian maps by Pietro Vesconte, covering the Tuapse, Nicopsis, and Dzhubga regions, could refer to the Zhane Principality. In these maps, the region of Sania is located between Mauro Zega, or Black Zikhia, which was conquered by the Mongols, and Alba Zega, or White Zikhia, which maintained its independence.

An analysis of Caucasus geography by the Arab geographer Abulfeda in 1321 identifies a distinct political entity named "al-Anjaz", which several historians theorize refers to the Zhane. His accounts describe a "al-Kasak" state situated between al-Anjaz and the Alans ("al-Lan"). Abulfeda also introduces the concept of "al-Dajarkis" (Circassia) as a larger, populated federation that included both regions, indicating that if al-Anjaz indeed refers to the Zhane, they were recognized both as an independent unit and as part of the broader Circassian realm by the early 14th century.

In the 1380s, an Golden Horde governor in Solkhat was mentioned with the names Jhancasius, lord of Zichia (lo segnor Zicho), and Circassian lord (Jharcasso segnor). It is highly probable that this was a Zhane prince in the service of the Golden Horde.

Italian maritime charts from the 15th century place the Zhane in the coastal region of Zichia. These maps often record the area as "Sannia" or "Sanna" and show their settlement in the mountains and coast between Tuapse, Nykopsis, and Dzhubga. A 1480 map by Grazioso Benincasa uses the term "Sanna Zichia" ("Zhane Zichia"), showing that Italian cartographers saw the Zhane principality as an organized entity along the coast, able to compete with neighboring principalities like Kheghache, Hatuqay, Chemguy, and Kabardia.

16th Century

Internal rivalry and Crimean intervention (1498)

Genoese sources from the 1460s and 1470s record that the owner of the feudal estate of Copa, referred to as Barasabiyeqo, was a prince who had a son named Kambelot (Qambolet). Khotko considers Copa to be the base or precursor of the Zhane Principality.

An internal power struggle and rivalry among the Zhane princes led to external military intervention in 1498. Prince "Antonon" requested military assistance from the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray to gain an advantage over his rivals.

Following the Crimean intervention, Antonuq and a group of Circassian leaders recognized the Crimean Khan as a higher authority. This political relationship was maintained through a loyalty oath and the presentation of regular gifts.

Mengli Giray documented this development in a 1498 letter to the Russian Tsar Ivan III, stating that a delegation led by "Aytek" (Aytech) had arrived to present tribute. Linguistic analysis shows that the name Antonon is a variant of Antonok (Antonuq), combining the Latin root Anton with the Adyghe suffix -qo, meaning son. The 1498 intervention had demonstrated the capacity of the Crimean Khanate to participate in internal conflicts within Circassia, though the arrangement was temporary. By 1501, Mengli Giray reported that the political compliance of the region had come to an end and that the territory remained outside his control.

Ottoman relations and administration

In 1519, the fortress of Djana ("Cana") was constructed in a strategic position to strengthen Ottoman influence along the Black Sea coast and control over the local Circassian populations. In Ottoman administrative records, this region became known as the "Dzhaney Vilayet," with the fortress serving as a crucial fortification to secure the coastline.

According to the 1529 registers, a Zhane community ("Zânî cemaati") resided in Cevizi, a neighborhood of the Azak Fortress. They were recorded as having a population of 17 households and 3 single individuals.

According to oral traditions about the legendary Battle of Kyzburun, which Zaurbek Kojev dates to 1537 or 1538, the Principality of Zhane participated as part of the coalition supporting Prince Yidar. Zhane forces participated in the Western Circassian coalition that defeated the Kabardian princes and their Abaza allies near the Baksan River. Yidar became the Grand Prince of Kabardia and reclaimed his inherited lands.

In 1538, the Ottoman state listed the Zhane (Jana) region as a vilayet. Prince Qanshawuq (Adyghe: Къаншъаукъу), who was referred as "Kansavuk", accepted Ottoman suzerainty in 1539. He received the title of sancakbey, a salary, a gold-headed banner and a horsetail staff. He promised to protect the region as an Ottoman subject. From 1539 onwards, by order of the Bey of Caffa, the Zhane population paid a fixed jizya, which is the tax paid by non-Muslim Ottoman subjects.

1539 Crimean campaign

Remmal Hoca (Kaysuni-zade Mehmed Nidai), a court geomancer and historian, chronicled the reign of Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray (1532–1551). Researchers describe him as a "panegyrist historian" whose primary objective was to glorify his patron's military campaigns, including those in Circassia. Consequently, his work, Tārih-i Şāhib Giray Hān, is characterized by a hagiographic perspective.

18th century Crimean historian Abdul Gaffar Efendi used a mid-16th-century source, the Sâhib-Gerey Han Vakayi-nâmesi which he included in the Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, to provide information on the period. While some events are completely contradictory between these two sources, the basic course of events are similar.

In the second half of 1539, Halil Bey, the Sanjak-bey of Caffa, informed the Crimean Khan that Kabardian Circassians, with the support of Kuban Circassians, stole goods from the Taman Peninsula and transported them away. In May and June, the Crimean Khan Sahib Giray I led a military campaign with an army of 40,000 men against the Zhane Principality. The campaign was launched because the Zhane prince Qanshawuq was held responsible for the previous attacks on Ottoman territories on the Taman Peninsula. Halil Bey had provided a fleet for logistics and accompanied the Crimean troops to the fortress of Temryuk.

Sahib Giray summoned Qanshawuq along other princes, who came to ask for forgiveness, and questioned him about his army size. When Qanshawuq stated he had 15,000 soldiers, the Khan became angry and accused him of breaking his oath despite having the power to prevent the attacks:

Because you have so many soldiers, the fortunate Sultan granted you a salary and bestowed upon you a golden-headed banner. You guaranteed that no enemy ship would cause harm to Taman Peninsula. You made a vow, saying, 'If a single person loses even a sheep, I shall give them an ox in its place.' Yet, while you sit only a day's journey away, a few Circassian thieves come, raid the peninsula, and torment the Muslims, and you remain indifferent to it. What kind of loyal servant to the Sultan are you? I shall first deal with you, and then I shall find them.

According to Remmal Hoca, the Khan ordered Qanshawuq to receive 10,000 lashes and to be hanged the next day if he wouldn't be dead from lashes. Qanshawuq's relatives asked Halil Bey to mediate, offering 20 slaves to Caffa Bey, 100 to the Khan, and 200 to the Ottoman Sultan. Halil Bey intervened, Qanshawuq's life was spared, and he left hostages in Temryuk while returning to his lands to prepare the slaves. Sahib Giray then launched a campaign to Western Circassia with 40,000 soldiers, captured many locals, but a Circassian guide directed the army into rugged terrain, ending the expedition without military success.

1545 Crimean campaign

In the spring of 1545, Qanshawuq refused to send the annual slaves and gifts to the Ottoman Sultan and the Crimean Khan. He detained four men sent to collect the gifts and his men robbed Taman residents and stole animals. He declared that he would no longer accept these state demands or pay taxes. Qanshawuq insulted the Ottoman authorities against the Ottoman state and Islam, questioned what the Sultan or the Khan could do to him.

Sahib Giray ordered Halil Bey to prepare ships in Kerch for a second campaign. The Khan prepared 20,000 soldiers and went to Caffa where he camped at Sarıgöl. Halil Bey prepared 300 ships and 500 boats to transport the army across the strait. With the Ottoman Sultan's approval, the army, which included musketeers, Janissaries, and artillery, crossed the strait.

Battle of Mount Kıdımit

According to Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, Upon seeing the Khan's army approaching, Qanshawuq gathered his forces and took position on Mount "Kıdımit". According to Remmal Hoca, the Crimean army crossed the Kuban river and camped at Mount "Hıtıbıt".

According to Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, Sahib Giray sent envoys to demand Qanshawuq's submission. Qanshawuq rejected responded by ordering that the noses of the envoys be cut off before sending them back. However, according to Remmal Hoca, at the Temryuk Fortress, Sahib Giray ordered the firing of 30 cannons and 1,000 muskets, and the sound was heard from three days away. Upon hearing the artillery, Qanshawuq lost consciousness from fear, and his companions revived him by splashing water on his face. Qanshawuq gathered the elders and they decided to offer 500 slaves to the Khan and 1,000 to the Sultan. He sent an envoy of twenty men with this peace offer. The Khan rejected the offer, had the men beaten with whip, cut off the noses and ears of two envoys, and sent them back. After this event, Qanshawuq's force of 15,000 men blamed him and mostly dispersed, leaving him with only 2,000 men. This event is the first major example of contradictions between the two sources regarding the rebellion.

According to Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, Qanshawuq's forces defeated the vanguard of the Crimea, but the main Crimean army forced them to abandon their positions. According to Remmal Hoca, the Crimean forces reached the Zhane, where the defenders had dug trenches. The Zhane warriors launched a night attack on the Khan's camp, but the Tatar units surrounded and destroyed or captured them. The next morning, the Khan's army launched a general attack on the Circassian positions. The battle lasted less than an hour, and the Zhane forces suffered heavy losses and defeat. Qanshawuq fled into the forest with a few men. Tatar soldiers looted the surrounding area for fifteen days, capturing "50,000" prisoners and chaining more than 100 "mirzas" (noblemen). In exchange for the release of the captured noblemen, between 20 and 50 slaves were demanded for each of them.

Retreat to Kabardia

According to Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, Qanshawuq first fled to Bzhedugia, then fled to Kabardia. Sahib Giray had returned to Crimea for a period, but he mobilized his forces again upon learning that Qanshawuq was gathering troops in Kabardia and blocking the Taman-Kıdımit route, and entered Kabardia through Azak (Azov). The Khan's army reached the headwaters of the Terek rivers, an area mentioned in sources as "Kolkuçin". This location is a small waterside spot known as "Beştepe" or "Beşdağ" in Ottoman sources and spesifically "Kaşkadağ" (Kashkatau) area. The army was advancing by setting up temporary camps and established their base by this water for the night. Qanshawuq gathered a large force from the local people and his loyalists in Kabardia where he had taken refuge. This army had consisted of more than 10,000 Kabardians. According to Remmal Hoca, in the autumn of 1545, Qanshawuq traveled to Kabardia with 200 men to seek allies following his defeat. He proposed an alliance against the Crimean Khan to the local rulers and suggested capturing Azak fortress to sever the Khan's supply lines. The Kabardians refused this proposal due to the proximity of the Crimean army and ordered Qanshawuq to leave, which caused him to lose his political influence.

The night attack

According to Umdetü'l-Ahbâr, knowing that the Khan's army had numerical superiority and better firepower, Qanshawuq avoided a direct open battle and instead planned a night attack. The Crimean troops were caught unprepared, resting in the open by the water without a proper defensive line. Qanshawuq's cavalrymen launched an assault that caused a mass confusion in the Khan's army. Qanshawuq's forces routed many Crimean soldiers and scattered the military formation. The Crimean soldiers abandoned their positions and were forced to flee toward the "Kömesi-Suyu", which is known today as "Kuma-Suyu" or "Kumi".

End of the campaign

The following day, Sahib Giray reorganized his troops and launched a counterattack. The Crimean army encircled the Circassian forces from both sides. The majority of Qanshawuq's army were killed, and many were taken prisoner. Qanshawuq fled toward the Kuma River with a small number of men. The Crimean army continued to follow his route and captured his family, relatives, and some Zhane people in the Baksan region. Qanshawuq retreated to the upper reaches of the Urup River and the mountains north of "Sokum". After the rebellion crushed, Sahib Giray relocated some of the captives to Crimea and settled them there, re-establishing his administrative control in the region. As a result of these events, Qanshawuq's military power declined, and the Zhane Principality weakened.

According to Remmal Hoca, the Crimean army returned to Bakhchysarai via Temryuk, Kerch, and Caffa. Victory letters and slaves were sent to the Ottoman Sultan and neighboring leaders. In 1551, Sahib Giray organized a new campaign because Hatuqay princes Aledjuq and Antenuq attacked pilgrim caravans. While in the Kabardia region, the Khan asked about Qanshawuq's location. An envoy reported that Qanshawuq had come to them with 200 men seeking allies. Qanshawuq lost his political influence and searched for a place to take refuge far from his lands.

Alliance with Russia (1555–1562)

A Circassian prince.

The Zhane Principality established diplomatic contacts with the Tsardom of Russia because of military pressure from the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. Prince Siboq (Adyghe: Сибокъу), or "Sibok" in historical sources, the son of Qanshawuq, led the second major Circassian delegation to Moscow in August 1555. This delegation included 100 noblemen, his brother "Antsmugok" or "Atsimguk", and Siboq's son "Kudadek". The delegation was sent by the decision of a large Circassian council (Khase). The first delegation in November 1552 was led by Besleney prince Makhoshoqo Qanoqo along with local rulers. The goal of the Zhane princes in making an alliance with Russia was to get military assistance to capture the Ottoman fortresses on the Taman Peninsula. The Russian Tsar Ivan IV stated that Russia was at peace with the Ottoman Empire and rejected the request for help against these fortresses, but he promised protection to the Circassians against the Crimean Khanate in the return of an oath of allegiance to the Tsar.

Trusting the promised support, in October 1556, Zhane forces under the command of Prince Siboq and his brother "Tazdruy" attacked the Ottoman areas and forts on the coast. They captured the Ottoman coastal fortifications of Temryuk and Taman on the Taman Peninsula. This campaign was carried out at the same time as Dmytro Vyshnevetsky's operations on the Dnieper line. Siboq and Makhoshoqo settled to Moscow along their families and noblemen, likely because they could not hold the fortresses for a long time. The princes who arrived in Moscow accepted Christianity and were baptized there; Siboq took the name Vasily, while Makhoshoqo took the name Ivan.

In the second half of the 16th century, Zhane princes were mostly Muslim. This religious identity occurred alongside political alliances that shifted based on circumstance. However, a prince might adopt a religion to maintain a political alliance, yet continue to serve a different power. For example; "Tsurak", a Muslim Zhane prince, had allied with Dmytro Vyshnevetskyi against the Ottomans in the early 1560s.

The "newly baptized" Circassian princes, Ivan (Makhoshoqo) and Vasily (Siboq), participated in the Russian army's Livonian War in 1558. According to Russian records of the Livonian War, Prince Siboq and his brothers had joined with a military force of about 5,000 men under their command.

In the summer of 1559, Dmytro Vyshnevetsky and Zhane warriors besieged the Ottoman-controlled fortress of Azak. In September 1559, the Zhane prince "Ichyuruk" arrived in Moscow and declared his allegiance to the Tsar. Ichyuruk requested that the Russian Tsar send a Russian governor to the region and asked for the baptism of the Zhane people.

In the winter of 1559–1560, troops under the command of Dmytro Vyshnevetsky and Circassians under the command of Prince Qanshawuq ("Kansuk"), the son Siboq, continuously attacked and continued to siege the Azak Fortress. Qanshawuq was the son of Siboq and was named after his grandfather. They also attempted to cross the Taman Strait, infiltrate into Crimea, and attack the fortress of Caffa. However, these attempts largely failed with the arrival of the Ottoman navy in the region.

Prior to November 1559, the Beshtav and Zhane Circassians formed an alliance and launched an attack on Taman and clashed with "Shuca" Bey, the Bey of Caffa. In the spring of 1559, Dmytro Vishnevetsky advanced via the Don River to besiege Azak Fortress. During this siege, a detachment of 400 Circassians supported Vyshnevetsky. The Bey of Caffa arrived with his fleet, leading to a fierce naval battle. Following Vyshnevetsky's defeat and retreat, the Circassian detachment continued to fight. A cavalry counterattack from inside the fortress forced the Circassians to retreat. An Ottoman imperial decree published on November 23, 1559, contained defense orders for the Crimean Khan. The document reported that Circassians allied with Moscow, under the leadership of the Zhane ("Zhanoglu clan"), carried out attacks against Ottoman properties in Taman and Caffa. The decree stated that the "Taman Circassians started a rebellion". The Crimean Khan reported that he repelled these attacks and captured some of the Circassian leaders.

In 1560, Zhane princes along Vyshnevetsky planned a joint attack on Azak. The strategy required Vyshnevetsky to attack from the Don River side while Zhane forces to strike from Southeast of the fortress. Because Vyshnevetsky delayed his attack, Sinan Bey, the Sanjak-bey of Caffa, learned of the plan and launched a preemptive attack against Zhane forces. Following intense combat, Kansuk and one of his brothers killed in action. The Ottomans sent the heads of these dead Circassian princes and Russian commanders that were along with them to Istanbul.

In February 1560, Ivan IV sent Russian governor Dmytro Vyshnevetsky alongside Circassian princes Siboq and Makhoshoqo to Western Caucasus with Christian priests to baptize Zhane leaders and organize them against the Crimean Khanate. Following a tip from a Polish envoy, Crimean Khan Devlet Giray launched a major military campaign into Circassia. As a result of this intervention, Vishnevetskiy left the region due to a lack of support from Moscow, and Siboq's sons fled to Poland. In 1560, the Ottoman Sultan rewarded Sinan Bey for his actions in defending the Azak Fortress. Sinan Pasha received 30,000 akçe for protecting the fortress against the Russian commander Vyshnevetsky and Zhane warriors .

In July 1560, Vishnevetsky launched another attack on Azak but was stopped by the Bey of Caffa. Russian and Zhane forces then attempted to cross the Strait of Taman to attack Caffa. Ottoman authorities, who learned of the plans through either Russian messengers or spies of the Crimean Khan, stationed a second fleet in the strait and blocked the attack.

In early 1561, the French ambassador reported that the successful operations by the Russians and Circassians were threatening Caffa.

Decline of Russian relations

Russian authorities had promised support to the Zhane. However, Russia prioritized the Kabardia region and the Daryal Gorge. Russia restricted its support for the Zhane to avoid direct conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

Before marrying Maria Temryukovna, Ivan IV sought a bride from Zhane. In August 1560 and February 1561, the Tsar sent envoys Fedor Voksherin and B.I. Sukin to the Zhane region to look at the princesses. While there is no document on whether Siboq gave his daughter to the Tsar, Zhane-Russian relations started to weaken after this period. With Vishnevetsky's departure from Russian service to Poland in 1561, this period of close military cooperation between the Zhane and Moscow began to weaken. In 1562, official peace negotiations were made between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman administrative records show that the Zhane were in a state of "rebellion against them" and continued to create a military threat against the Azak Fortress.

In 1563, fearing an attack from Temruqo of Kabardia who had Russian support, Prince Siboq and the prince of Besleney sent an envoy to Crimean Khan Devlet Giray to request a Crimean prince, Islam Giray, to rule them. This envoy was Siboq's brother, "Chuyuk" or "Chubuk". Later, Siboq's son Alexander and his relatives stayed in Lithuania with another brother of Siboq, before showing their intention to move to Crimea. The possible refusal of the Zhane to give a bride to the Tsar and the start of secret peace talks between Russia and Crimea brought relations to the breaking point.

Sigismund II Augustus in 1561.

At the end of 1562 or the beginning of 1563, following the diplomacy between Moscow and the Ottoman Empire, Prince Alexander Sibokovich (son of Siboq) left the region. He was accompanied by some Zhane rulers and possibly some rulers from Hytuk, and they entered the official military service of King Sigismund II Augustus of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Because the Russian Tsar Ivan IV sought peace with the Crimean Khanate due to his war against Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the military support that the western Circassian princes received from Moscow was cut off. Prince Alexander, who was known in Moscow as Alexander Vasilievich Cherkassky, entered the Polish knight class along with five princes and a cavalry group of 300 noblemen, and they received various estates. This group entering Polish service also included Temryuk Shimekovich, who was a nephew of Siboq and had performed successful military activities in the region.

Siboq soon entered the service of the Crimean Khan. There is no record of Siboq converting to Islam when he joined this service. He likely served the Crimean Khan as an Orthodox Christian for a period.

Re-integration into the Ottoman sphere

In 1563, Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray appointed his son, Safa Giray, as the administrative official (idarı amir) over the Zhane. This appointment established an official and administrative connection between the Zhane and the Crimean Khanate, which integrated the principality into the administrative hierarchy of the khanate.

In the middle of the 16th century, some members of the Zhane aristocracy integrated into the Ottoman imperial hierarchy. Administrative records from the 1560s show that Kasım Pasha, who was a member of the Zhane elite class, held the high-ranking post of Sanjak-bey of Caffa. During this period, Kasım Pasha led the canal project intended to connect the Don and Volga rivers and commanded the related military operations.

In the 1560s, the political side supporting the Ottoman-Crimean alliance formed a continuous zone of influence stretching from the borders of the Zhane lands to Kabardia. Within this alliance structure, the Kabardians under Pshiapshoqo Qeytuqo, Gazi the ruler of the Lesser Nogai Horde, and various Circassian principalities including the Zhane, Hatuqay, Bzhedug, and Besleney came together. This political alignment was supported by marriages between dynasties.

In 1564, the Zhane principality was organized under Ottoman administration as the Zhane Sanjak, with Prince Mustafa Bey as its leader, while his relative Prince Akhmet (also known as Aspat / АспIатI in Adyghe) had influence. The Russian Tsar sent his envoy, Afanasiy Nagoy, to establish direct contact with these Zhane princes, and to gather information on their military strength and their willingness to align with Moscow. In the same year, the principality experienced internal instability caused by some people who kidnapped subjects and sold them into slavery. While local authority belonged to Mustafa Bey, the Ottoman central administration bypassed him and directed the Bey of Caffa to intervene to restore public security.

In 1565, Mustafa Bey appealed to the Ottoman Empire against the kidnapping and enslavement of his Zhane subjects by non-Muslim Circassians. Upon Mustafa Bey's petition, the Ottoman sultan sent an order to the Governor of Caffa, stating that the Zhane were now Ottoman subjects, banning slave traders from buying them, and ordering the immediate release of those who were enslaved. In 1565, reports sent by the Beylerbey of Caffa confirm that the Zhane maintained its independent military operations in the region.

Kasım Paşa commanded the 1569 Astrakhan campaign, which relied on military support and supplies from Crimea and Circassia. While the Ottoman Sultan issued decrees for Zhane leaders and others to join the forces from Caffa, Moldavia, and Wallachia, the mobilization failed. Seven Circassian rulers, including bey of "Cana" (Zhane) Mustafa, bey of "Takuşe" Bahadır, bey of "Hali" Mustafa, three unnamed princes, and the ruler of Terek, did not join the campaign.

In June 1571, Mustafa Bey traveled to Istanbul to meet Selim II. He requested permission for his subjects to resettle in the Taman region. The Ottoman administration granted Mustafa Bey and his brothers the right to settle and acquire property. This action was part of an Ottoman policy to reduce the influence of the Crimean Khan by connecting local leaders directly to the central government.

The Ottomans imposed taxes on the Taman population including the Zhane, including jizya (tax on non-Muslims), ashar, and resm-i çift (land tax). Circassian leaders and the population frequently petitioned the Governor of Caffa, stating they couldn't pay those taxes, but the petitions had no effect. The taxation and central authority pressure led some Zhane groups abandoned their villages and relocated to mountainous areas beyond Ottoman or Crimean control. Ottoman documents from 1570 and 1571 issued orders to return this population to their settlements. Some Zhane groups retried to sought an alliance with Russia in response, which intensified the competition between the Ottoman Empire and Russia in the region.

Late 16th-century

In 1577, following the raiding and enslavement of the population living under the Zhane leader named Akhmet, Mehmed II Giray sent a letter to Istanbul. In the document, Mehmed Giray stated that this population should be treated similarly to the protected subjects (rayah) of the Ottoman Empire and the raids against them were unlawful under Islamic law.

In 1578, the Ottoman administration paid 1,206,274 akçe from the revenue of Caffa to Circassian rulers. This amount rose to 1,918,480 akçe in 1579. Some of these Circassian rulers also received revenues from other parts of the empire. One Zhane prince received a timar from the revenue of Aleppo. Previously, in 1565, this same prince had rebelled and made an alliance with the Zaporozhian Cossacks led by Dmytro Vyshnevetskyi.

In 1584, internal succession struggles broke out in Crimea, resulting in the death of Khan Mehmed II Giray. Following these events, the sons of the late khan, Saadet Giray, Safa Giray, and Murad Giray, were forced to leave Crimea. In 1586, Safa Giray moved into Circassia, first to Kabardia and subsequently to Zhane. Safa Giray had an atalyk relation with the Zhane. Based on his 1563 administrative role and his atalyk connection, the Zhane supported Safa Giray's claim as a candidate for the Crimean throne and granted him political protection.

In the early 1587, an Ottoman merchant ship carrying soldiers, merchants, goods, and slaves ran aground on the Zhane coast. The Zhane prince, who held an Ottoman title and was an Ottoman subject, seized the 150 Muslims and 548 slaves on board, claiming the passengers and cargo as his own property. The Ottoman administration responded by ordering the prince, Akhmet (recorded as "Çıkoko" in another document), to return the people and goods. They avoided a military attack at the first because the prince was considered an Ottoman ally, but they officially labeled his actions as a failure of duty. The Ottoman government also ordered the Crimean Khan to investigate how a ruler operating under an Ottoman mandate could commit such an act and directed him to recover the captives. The Ottoman administration responded by ordering Akhmet to return the people and goods. They initially avoided a military attack because Akhmet (Chiqoqo) was considered an Ottoman ally, but they officially labeled his actions as a failure of duty. The Ottoman government also ordered the Crimean Khan to investigate how a ruler operating under an Ottoman mandate could commit such an act and directed him to recover the captives.

In the first half of 1587, an Ottoman merchant ship commanded by Seydi Reis, which was carrying soldiers, merchants, goods, and slaves from Sukhumi, ran aground on the Zhane coast at a location referred to as the "large harbor" (büyük liman). The Governor of the Zhane Sanjak-bey, Prince Ahmed (recorded as "Çıkoko" in another document), who held an Ottoman title and was an Ottoman subject, seized the cargo, alongside the 150 Muslims and 548 slaves on board, claiming the passengers and cargo as his own property. The Ottoman administration responded by ordering the Beylerbeyi of Caffa to recover all the seized property and captives from the prince, who was commanded to return the people and goods.

In mid-1587, the Zhane was in a state of rebellion against the Ottomans. The Crimean Khan sent a report to the Ottoman court stating that the conflict was resolved and the population was brought back under compliance. The report also addressed administrative matters, noting that a local currency (kara akçe) valued at four per one Ottoman akçe had been minted under legal decrees, and dismissed reports that Mubarak Giray and Selamet Giray had collected unauthorized fines. Due to geographic distance, the central Ottoman administration relied on the Governor of Caffa to track political developments in the Caucasus. Because Istanbul lacked detailed intelligence on local borders and alliances, the governor was regularly commanded to verify the allegiance of Circassian leaders. Before official decrees were sent to these leaders at the request of the Crimean Khan, the Governor of Caffa had to investigate and confirm their compliance.

During the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–1590), the North Caucasus served as a supply route for Ottoman forces. An Ottoman decree dated 1581 commands the safe passage of miners through dangerous territories on their way to a silver mine in Shirvan via Derbent. Copies of this order were sent to several regional leaders, the rulers of Zhane, Chemguy, Kabardia, Besleney, "Karayutak", Hatuqay and the Shamkhal of Kumyk. In 1583, the Zhane leaders Akhmet and Davud escorted the imperial treasury and military units from Istanbul to the Ottoman army in Derbent. For this service, the Ottoman administration awarded them khilats (robes of honor). The Ottomans also placed these leaders on a salary and granted their territories sanjak status to consolidate the Ottoman presence in the region.

An Ottoman decree from 1592 to 1593 addresses the Zhane rulers, Ahmed Bey and Musa Bey, regarding regional security. An Ottoman official Hüsrev, who was a Chemguy prince in origin, was appointed to investigate bandit groups in Caffa and Taman. The Zhane leadership was ordered to detain any bandits fleeing into their territory and hand them over to Mehmed Çavuş for investigation. The decree states that cooperation would be in their favor, while negligence would result in punishment. Later, in 1586, Zhane leader Mehmet Bey was directly tasked with ensuring the safe transport of the Ottoman military treasury to Derbent.

In the 16th century, the Zhane principality was considered the most powerful and dominant political entity in Western Circassia. By the first half of the 16th century, the Zhane had a centralized authority ruled by their own "Grand Prince". According to W.E.D. Allen, the Giray dynasty frequently married Circassian women, with women from the Zhane being particularly common in these marriages.

17th Century

According to local oral traditions, by the first half of the 17th century, the Zhane inhabited the lower basin of the Psekups River, bordered by nomadic steppe groups to the north, Abazins to the east, Shapsugs and Natukhajs to the west, and Circassian fugitives in the southern mountain passes. During this period, the Cherchenay, a subgroup of the Bzhedug, were forced by the Abzakh pressure northward out of the upper Psekups basin and across the Chigiyako Stream, pushing the Zhane toward the Kuban and Belaya rivers. Following further Abzakh pressures and wars around 1631, the main Bzhedug population also advanced toward the Kuban River, which affected the Zhane territory. A portion of the Zhane merged with the Bzhedug, while another group moved to Kara-Kuban Island. The lower reaches of the Pshish and Psekups rivers, extending from the Afips River and previously inhabited by the Zhane, passed under Bzhedug control.

According to Italian Dominican missionary Giovanni da Lucca, who visited Circassia between 1625 and 1629, the Zhane principality was ruled by two brother princes, "Casibei" (Qaziy) and "Sancascobei", who controlled all the coastal settlements. Lucca's 1629 notes also mention that the Zhane lands, located a two-day journey from Temryuk, were under the rule of a leader named "Djan-ko-bey".

Zhane people adopted Islam widely beginning in the 17th century. It is linked to the high status of their leadership within the Crimean Khanate. Princes who converted to Islam would usually change their original Circassian names to Muslim names.

Zhane Civil War and Crimean-Zhane War in mid-17th century

Crimean records

According to the Çelebi Akay Tarihi (History of Chelebi Akay), an 18th-century Crimean chronicle written by Abdurrahman Efendi, further details the conflict and the actions of Hakushmuq (Adyghe: ХьэкушIмыкъу) ("Hakshumak" in Ottoman sources), who is named in this text as the "Akçomak", which is a Turkified version of his name; "ak" meaning white, "çomak" meaning a short stick with a thick end. Abdurrahman Efendi based these accounts on Seyyid Mehmed Rıza's work, Es-Seb‘ü’s-Seyyâr, simplified the text and added his own observations. The chronicle describes Hakushmuq as obstinate (muânnid), rebellious (âsî), and a liar (âfik), highlights his actions against the Crimean khans. Hakushmuq claimed fully independent authority to establish the main power of Zhane and did not recognize the Crimean rulers.

Between 1635 and 1637, during the reign of Inayet Giray, Zhane prince Hakushmuq refused to obey the Crimean Khanate and didn't send the slaves and tribute. Pehlivan Husam Giray, who was a Kalgay, was sent to collect the traditional tax called kudümiyye, a type of captive tax and tribute. After Husam Giray entered Zhane territory, Hakushmuq's men stole horses from the Crimean army. Husam Giray organized a surprise attack on the Zhane through Taman and returned to Crimea with a large number of captives.

Between 1637 and 1641, during the reign of Bahadır Giray, Hakushmuq remained sovereign and increased his claims of independence. He declared that he did not recognize the Crimean khans and claimed the status of a sovereign ruler. The Khan's brother, Islam Giray Sultan, led a new campaign against Hakushmuq but could not break through the Zhane defenses in battle and were forced to retreat.

After Islam Giray III became the Crimean Khan in 1644, he organized a campaign. The Crimean forces feigned a campaign toward a different direction and launched a sudden attack against the Zhane through Taman. The Zhane were defeated and Hakushmuq was killed along his supporters. Crimean forces took a large number of captives, whom the text describes as "sugar-lipped girls", "silver-skinned boys," and "four-eyebrowed young servants".

Ottoman records

In other documents, the regional influence rivalry between the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire affected dynastic relations within the Zhane principality. During his reign between 1637 and 1641, the Crimean Khan Bahadır I Giray placed his son under the care of the Zhane prince Antonuq to be educated through the traditional atalyk (fosterage) system. This arrangement increased the political influence and prestige of Antonuq throughout Circassia. Antonuq's brother Hakushmuq feared that this situation would give Antonuq absolute authority. Between the years 1638 and 1644, Hakushmuq launched a military attack against Antonuq, defeating him and plundering his properties. Hakushmuq fled from the Crimean troops sent by Bahadır Giray and took refuge in the Ottoman-controlled Azak Fortress under the protection of Governor Siyavush Pasha. The Ottoman court granted legitimacy to Hakushmuq by sending him a decree renewing the "Circassian administration" authority previously given to him during the reign of Sultan Ahmed I.

Islam III Giray took the Crimean throne in 1644. Islam Giray ignored the decisions of the Ottoman authorities supporting Hakushmuq and launched a large-scale military campaign against him. The Crimean army entered Circassian territory by crossing the Kerch Strait, which was frozen during the winter season. As a result, Hakushmuq's faction was dispersed, and he was captured and executed. Antonuq had become the single ruler of the Greater Zhane and remained in power for at least 22 years from this date, since Evliya Çelebi also recorded Antonuq in 1666.

Circassian folklore

In Circassian folklore, the story of Qanbolet is dated by researchers to the first half of the 17th century. However, the identity of Qanbolet in folk memory was conflated with Hakushmuq due to similar historical events. At the end of the 15th century, a Zhane prince named Antonuq traveled to the Crimean Khanate to seek military intervention against his rival in an internal conflict in exchange for allegiance. Genoese records from the 1470s note that Prince Barasbiyeqo, the ruler of Copa, had a son named Qanbolet. Because a Zhane prince named Antonuq sought Crimean intervention to defeat his brother during an internal conflict twice over a period of 1.5 centuries, the 17th-century events about Hakushmuq became merged in oral tradition with the 15th-century prince Qanbolet. Although Khan-Giray's accounts mention a prince named Hakushmuq, he is portrayed as a different character.

Oral traditions collected by Shora Nogmov record the conflict of the brothers Qanbolet and Antonuq. The dispute began over rumors regarding a relationship between Qanbolet and Setenay, who was a woman living in Antonuq's house. After Antonuq expelled his brother from the house, Qanbolet sought refuge with his atalyk. Learning that Setenay continued to send gifts to Qanbolet, Antonuq planned to kill him, prompting Qanbolet to flee to the Ottoman Empire for military aid. When this assistance didn't happen, Qanbolet returned with the support of the Zhane people, and established authority over the Zhane people. Antonuq then forced to flee to the Crimean Khan, promising the Khan wealth from the spoils of war if he helped eliminate Qanbolet and his followers.

After a seven-year delay in Crimea, Antonuq received the promised military support from the Crimean Khan. By this time, Qanbolet had managed to win the loyalty of the entire Zhane population and upon learning that his brother was approaching Zhane territory with the Crimean army, he mobilized his people to prepare for their arrival. The subsequent war was fierce and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Qanbolet managed to escape the battlefield but the Crimean forces tracked Qanbolet down, trapped and killed him in a coastal bay. With Qanbolet's death, the conflict ended, leaving Antonuq in full control of the Zhane population. After the battle, the Zhane population swore an oath of loyalty to Antonuq. The property of Qanbolet's followers was given to the Crimean army, while accounts vary on whether Setenay was handed over to the Crimeans or exiled. To preserve the memory of these events, Qanbolet's atalyk commissioned a song through folk poets.

The lament of Qanbolet was collected by Shora Nogmov, recorded in old Kabardian (it also includes some Adyghe phonetic influences and grammatical features). The text details the sanctuary and support provided to Qanbolet's side by the Besleney by invoking their sacred bond of hospitality. Among the people mentioned in the song is Pshizadinoqo, a member of the Qanuqo (also spelled as Qanoqo) family, which was the ruling princely dynasty of the Besleney. It describes Qanbolet's desperate retreat to the coast, the deaths of his closest warriors during their last stand, and his final moments before being killed at the sea bay.

Full lyrics of the lament:

Зы цIэкIэ зэгэ, шэсмэ зэгъусэкIэ
Си ЖэндаритIумэ сагъэунэхъущ,
Афэ гъуэпэгуэ, лIыхъу шэрыуэ—
Макъыекъуэ пщ[ы]м батэгуэ си гур хигъачIщ,
Къаны[ы]болэт, гущэмэ!

ТхьэкIумэ жьажьэгуэ бжьы[б]жьы къегъэс.
Докъ и къуэкIэ Санокъуэ хахуэр
Безрыкъуэпщ[ы]мэ хуэкъуэпхъэщ,
Къанболэт, гущ[э]!

Щэбар щырапхъ[ы]гуа, а бжэ чIэкъыпэмэ
Къэрабэ лIыхъ[у]мэ бгъу[н]жгуэ зыресэ[ри]
Зы шу закъуэри фIыгъэкIыжкъэм Къэраб[ы]къуэ Къанокъуэ,
Къан[ы]болэт, гущ[э]!

„Мы жэщыпсмэ хым и торэшыр сокIухь
Сызэрихьэнгуэ мы къалэ мачIэми зы унэ закъуэры щызмыгъуэт,"
Къан[ы]болэты, мыгъуэ!

Ди уэздыгъэщIэмрэ ди щIылъмэ щIыхьмэр[э]
Ди хыпхэмэ урагъ[э]зщ,
Къан[ы]болэт, гущэ!

„Шумэ и къабзэмэрэ лъэсмэ и бзагэмэрэ махуэмэ фыкъызыIучIэ,
Тыр[к]угуэ IэлъэчIыр зителъмэ сытыр къысху[и]чIэщын?"
Къан[ы]болэт, мыгъуэ!

КъафI[ы]зыд[и]хугуэ къажэкIэмычIэ пщыкIэ
Жаныкъыл шэжьхэр къызэредзэкI,
Къан[ы]болэт, мыгъуэ!

„Си фIыгъэхэр зэмыкIэса с[и]Iакъэмэ, икIуэдащ.
Макъый у[ы] хахуэгуэ къуэпщ, батэгуэ си гур хигъачIэщ,"
Къан[ы]болэт, мыгъуэмэ!

„Иги, мыгъуэ, хахуэгуэ Хъумэрыкъуэшхуэр бгъунжгуэ хагъачIэ,
Абы и хьэдэ чIумэ сырагъалъэ,"
Къан[ы]болэт, гущ[э]!

Дыщэплъы фащ[э]гуэ хуэпагуэ щауэр
КъаныкъуэкIэ Пщызэдынокъуэ, узикъуэ къанмэ хуэкъуэпхъ[э]!
Къан[ы]болэт, гущ[э]!

Беслъэныйшхуэмэ я шыгъу-пIастэр хьэлэл тхурехъ[у]!
ЩытхуэмыхъужкIэ, бгъунжгуэ зырасэ, зытесмэ щэгуфIыкIкъэм[и].
Къан[ы]болэт, мыгъуэ!

Translation:

Called by a single name, together when riding
My two Zhandars made me unfortunate,
In mail coats with short sleeves, a brave marksman—
The son of Maqiy, the prince, surely made my heart grieve,
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

One who is hard of hearing rains down sorrow.
Doq's son valiant Sanoqo
Was worthy of being a son (pupil) to prince Bezruqo,
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

Where many arrows are poured, at this doorway exit
The valiant Qaraba holds his ground
And does not let even a single rider pass through
Qanoqo Qarabaqo,
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

"On this dark night, the bay of the sea I walk around,
And to shelter me, in this small town, I cannot find even a single house,"
Oh Qanbolet, what misfortune!

Our new light and the honor of our country
In our foreign lands they forced you to take refuge,
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

"Purest of the horsemen and fiercest of the infantrymen, gather together on that day,
What help to me is someone who wears a Turkish turban?"
Oh Qanbolet, what misfortune!

Driving enemies against their will, the prince who doesn't know how to flee
Zhaniqil shoots his proven arrows backward [even on the run].
Oh Qanbolet, what misfortune!

"There is none of my good left, to whomever I did it, [yet all] perished.
Maqiy, your valiant prince son, made my heart, once full, shrink in grief,"
Oh Qanbolet, what misfortune!

"Now, o misfortune, they knock valiant Khumaruqo the Great onto his side,
They force me to jump over his corpse,"
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

As if dressed in red gold, the young man
Pshizadinoqo of Qanuqo, who is your son, let him be a worthy son to the qan (tutor)!
Oh Qanbolet, what grief!

May the salt and pasta of Great Besleney be blessed unto us!
Since there is no way out for us, step aside, because the horse he is riding brings no hope at all.
Oh Qanbolet, what misfortune!

A Circassian noblewoman and a prince.

According to oral sources compiled by Sultan Khan-Giray, the Kheghache principality was ruled by two prince brothers, the elder Antonuq and the younger Qanbolet. Antonuq's wife, attracted to Qanbolet, attempted to seduce him and threatened to falsely accuse him of assault if he refused. Qanbolet avoided her during the night but accidentally left an arrow behind, which led Antonuq to believe he was betrayed and to take revenge, Antonuq allied with Crimea and attacked Qanbolet's lands, then captured Qanbolet's pregnant wife. After she shamed Antonuq with her words, he spared her but continued to destroy Qanbolet's villages. Qanbolet fled and sought refuge with a prince named Hakushmuq, whose only son Qanbolet had killed in a past raid. A maid who saw Qanbolet noted his slender waist, remarking that a cat could pass under his side without touching his belt. In accordance with the Circassian custom, Qanbolet claimed protection through Hakushmuq's wife, and Hakushmuq chose to accept him rather than seek revenge. To test his guest's honor, Hakushmuq demanded his weapons, then Qanbolet surrendered everything except his sword, explaining with tears that he kept it to defend against dogs. Hakushmuq respected him and returned all the weapons, then pledged his support in the conflict. Qanbolet later moved to Bzhedugia and started a seven-year war with Antonuq. During the war, Antonuq's wife secretly made male attire and sent it to Qanbolet. Antonuq intercepted the messenger and set a trap to catch them together, but Qanbolet chopped the clothing into pieces and threatened to hang any future messengers. Realizing his brother's innocence, Antonuq reconciled with him, ending the war.

The narrative also includes an episode involving two half-brothers from the noble Dandar (Adyghe: Дэндэр) family, who fought on opposing sides of the conflict. During a battle, the elder brother, fighting for Antonuq, lay dying in a ravine. When his younger brother, who was allied with Qanbolet, mocked his white trousers by calling him a wild goat, the elder brother replied that he was a warrior wearing fine silk trousers, so valuable that their own mother had never tied her head with such material, and told his brother to remove them before they became stained with his blood.

Polish–Russian War (1654–1667)

Circassian cavalry.

During the Polish–Russian War (1654–1667), when the Crimean Khanate supported Poland against Russia, the Zhane provided warriors to the Crimeans. According to Evliya Çelebi's Seyahatnâme, during this conflict, a massive Russian army led by Vasily Sheremetev advanced toward Crimea. In response, a Circassian force consisting of the Kheghache, Zhane, Mamkhigh, Ademey, Chemguy, Besleney, Kabardian, and Lesser Kabardians joined Mehmed IV Giray's forces at the "Sut" River. The Circassian forces were given the task of surrounding the fortified Russian camp. The battle ended with the defeat of the Russian forces and the capture of Sheremetev, halting the Russian advance into the region during that period.

Evliya Çelebi's Observations

Evliya Çelebi visited the Greater Zhane in 1666 and noted the following:

The capital of the province of the Circassian tribe of Jana, that is, the throne of the bey of the Jana people: These are five hundred houses covered with reeds and rushes at the foot of the Hayku mountains of Abaza. The name of the bey is Antenok. He possesses ten thousand brave, courageous horsemen with quivers and infantry with muskets. They always engage in war, conflict, battle, and slaughter with the Sadshe (Sadz) Abaza. Finding the Khan here, they gave banquets to the Khan and presented choice girls and male servants. They did not give anything to Selamet Geray Sultan and kept him in this country, because his mother was from the daughters of these Jana. From there, a thousand musketeers from among these were joined as companions to the Khan, and from there again toward the east in 2 hours, the Adakum River, near it the Setaze River: these also come from the Abaza province and go to the Kuban River. From there, again toward the east, traveling for (–) hours through forests and endless trees,

Evliya Çelebi also visited the Lesser Zhane:

In the register of the province of Lesser Jana: This country is more developed than Greater Jana and possesses brave and courageous warriors, having forty villages and three thousand soldiers. While coming to this station on that day, the Abin River, then the Habil River, then the Yil River, then the Aburgan River: we crossed these four waters of life on horses, enduring troubles and difficulties. These also rise from the Obur mountains of Abaza, pass through the soil of this Lesser Jana, and mix into the Kuban River. But we crossed some of these rivers by wading through them, and bridges of wood were built over two of them and they were crossed. They are waters of life that flow turbulently. From there, again toward the east in (–) hours,

According to Evliya Çelebi, in 1666, the Circassians could raise a cavalry army of 33,000 men along, and 13,000 of these soldiers belonged directly to the Zhane.

Late 17th century

"Genna" represents the Zhane possession. The map shows a part of Western Circassia, featuring two Turkish fortresses marked with a crescent, while Circassian settlements are marked with crosses. Carte d’Vkranie (1660) by Guillaume Levasseur de Beauplan.

In the late 17th century, the contemporary Ottoman historian Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi stated the following: the Zhane Circassians, who were neighbors to the Taman region, were the only Circassian community to which the Ottoman Empire appointed a kadi (judge). According to Hezarfen's records, the Zhane community institutionalized Islamic law and included the Ottoman judicial system in their governance structure. As a result of this legal process, the enslavement of the members of this community was forbidden. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Zhane Principality was seen as the starting point of the Ottoman border in the Caucasus. Because they accepted Islam and followed Ottoman law, Ottoman regulations strictly banned making them slaves. While internal Circassian areas up to Kabardia were classified as a war zone (dar al-harb) where slave-taking was allowed, the Zhane territory was officially protected under Ottoman rule. Record of Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi:

In Taman, which is a district of the Ottoman State, Sharia law is applied fully to the Circassians residing in the region up to the lands of the Zhane tribe. They are not to be made slaves. The lands from the Zhane to the Kabardian territories are dar al-harb. They may be enslaved. Nevertheless, they remain in obedience because they fear the Crimean Khans. In fact, so that expeditions are not launched against them, they offer slaves to the Khans, the Kalgay, and the Nureddin under the name of 'peşkeş' (gift). The people living in their villages are considered the property of their rulers. If the Crimean Khan demands soldiers from the rulers, they send a sufficient number of soldiers.

In the last decades of the 17th century, while most Circassians had complete independence, the Zhane Principality remained the only administrative structure maintaining a limited political dependency on the Crimean Khanate. During this period, there was no increase in the authority of the Crimean Khanate over the other lands within Circassia. One of Selim I Giray's wife was from either Zhane or Hatuqay. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Zhane were one of the most powerful principalities in Western Circassia, and their strength could rival Kabardia.

In the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century, the division within the Zhane feudal elite led to the decline of the Zhane society. During this process, the Shapsugs and Natukhajs started to break away from the authority of the Zhane princes to form democratic societies and grew both numerically and regionally.

18th Century

In the first half of the 18th century, while most West Circassians resided south of the Kuban River, the Zhane had a notable population north of the river. Around 1740, there were approximately 300 settlements across the peninsula under the authority of the Zhane prince. The administrative center of the principality was the town of Zhane, located on the banks of the Kuban River. The Zhane ruler resided there and held responsibility for the management of all settlements on the peninsula. Due to his strategic duties, the Zhane ruler was considered one of the most respected figures within the Crimean Khanate. For the Ottoman and Crimean administrations, the Zhane princes had two main functions. They were responsible for maintaining security across the Taman Peninsula and ensuring the supply of grain required by the Azak Fortress. In the local settlement hierarchy, Temryuk was the second most important location after Zhane. While Zhane served as the administrative center and the residence of the bey, Temryuk functioned as a production hub where Muslim Circassians engaged in fishing and trade, focusing particularly on the export of caviar and leather.

During the reign of Crimean Khan Fetih Giray between 1736 and 1737, diplomatic records mention a Zhane prince named Ilkas Bey (Alqas). His son, Kayin Ahmed Agha, served as an envoy for Ottoman Grand Vizier Es-Seyyid Mehmed Pasha to invite Fetih Giray to a military camp in the Kartal region. Ilkas Bey is identified as a Zhane leader whose family held marital ties to the Giray dynasty, as his daughter was married to Sultan Ahmed (Sultan is the Crimean title for prince).

A Russian archival record from May 1753 states that the Zhane, Abzakh and Shapsug, had complete independence from the authority of the Crimean Khan.

Russo-Circassian War

In Caucasian studies, the dissolution of the Zhane is linked to their physical destruction from Russian attacks during the Russo-Circassian War and previous Crimean raids, as their lands became a continuous battlefield.

When listing the sub-ethnic groups around the Anapa Fortress in the 1780s, Zhane rulers were recorded as "Imhas" and "Bashkoy", the principality consisted of 300 households, and they lived 9 hours away from Anapa. In August 1783, a Russian military detachment of approximately 500 soldiers crossed south of the Kuban River and attacked the Zhane and Hatuqay settlements, killed the inhabitants and looted the property.

By 1783, the Russian military had established a permanent battalion at Kapılı and maintained a constant presence at all river crossings, enabling raiding parties of 700 to 800 soldiers to systematically target the Besleney, Chemguy, Bzhedug, and Zhane territories. This military pressure compelled the leadership of these principalities to report that without direct Ottoman military intervention, they could no longer sustain their resistance against the encroaching forces.

In October 1783, following the increasing Russian mobilizations in the region, the Zhane leaders joined a major strategic council at the "Entehayır" (possibly the Antkhir River) plain between Zhane and Hatuqay. Alongside the leaders of the Besleney, Hatuqay, Chemguy, Bzhedug, and Makhosh principalities, the Zhane swore a formal oath to Ferah Ali Pasha to remain loyal to the Ottoman Sultan. During this assembly, Ferah Ali Pasha prevented Circassians from launching attacks against the "agitator" Shahin Giray, thereby stopping a major regional conflict with Russia. The Circassians requested urgent Ottoman military aid from the Russian border violations and requested official titles to formalize their status as "Ottoman-aligned defenders". According to the memoirs of General Musa Kundukhov, who recorded the testimony of Kabardian prince Alkhas Misost Bechmirza (who was serving in the Russian army), Prince Qizbech Qanoqo (Grand Prince of the Besleney Principality) was elected as the supreme leader of the Kuban Circassians during this assembly. Alkhas stated that the Circassians chose him because he embodied all the traits of an ideal leader, and a population of "approximately 100,000 households" swore absolute obedience to him.

In 1784, a joint petition against the Russian threat was submitted to the Ottoman center by several Circassian representatives, including Ali Khanuqo from Bzhedug, Mirzabech Shameqo from Kheghache/Hytuk, Hajji Ibrahim from Abzakh, and Hajji Ibrahim from Shapsug, alongside Köse Hajji Mehmed, a nobleman of the Zhane prince named "Timur Bey" or "Demir Bey". Circassian representatives reported that Russia built three new fortresses along the Kuban River and gathered troops near Taman. They requested that the Ottoman Empire build fortresses and palankas in their areas. They asked for guards from Anatolia, promising to assist the defense from the outside. The representatives warned that Russia would attack at the first opportunity. In fact, Russian forces had already violated the peace by crossing the river and attacking local populations. They added that if the locals reported these attacks to Istanbul, the Russians would deny the actions and distort the facts to blame the Circassians.

Entrance to Anapa.

Between 1785 and 1786, a mud fort was built in the Hatuqay and Zhane to protect the newly settled Nogai tribes, costing a total of 1,350 kuruş. In 1786, the rulers and elders of the Chemguy, Hatuqay, Bzhedug, Zhane, Kheghache, and Nogais attended a council at the Anapa Fortress to resolve a conflict between the Nogais and Natukhaj.

During the Sheikh Mansur movement, the Zhane were a part of the anti-Russian resistance in the Caucasus and formed an alliance with Kabardians, Shapsugs, and Abzakhs to fight against the Russian forces.

In 1787, during the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792, the approach of Russian armies caused the Zhane to leave their territories north of Kopyl. They relocated to the left bank of the Kuban River, established six villages under the rule of Mishawost Melichdjeriy Zaneqo in the Red Forest area. In 1788, during his march on Anapa, the Russian general Berkhman destroyed settlements (approximately 2,000 houses) around the "Zana" area, in order to crush resistance in the region and secure the river crossing.

Circassian soldiers drawn by Spencer.

On 20 February 1790, a Russian force of around 12,000 crossed the Kuban River and entered the Hatuqay and Zhane regions. Circassians fought on 15 locations during harsh winter conditions. While the local population fled to the mountains, Ottoman commander Battal Huseyin Pasha sent 3,000 soldiers with artillery to Circassians, who defeated the Russian army and forced them to retreat.

Between 1791 and 1792, the Zhane was included among the Circassian and Abaza people whose official seals were kept by the government to manage their official business when traveling to and from Istanbul, and these seals were recorded in the "Mühimme Defteri" (Registers of Important Affairs).

On 5 August 1792, the Zhane princes "Masuyet Bey" who was also listed as "Misust" and "Mishubest" (Mishawost), "Ilchent Bey", and "Tatar Shu Bey" (Tatarshau) officially requested that merchant ships from Istanbul come directly to the Anapa port to meet their trade needs. On 11 August, these same princes arrived in Anapa with more than 40 noblemen. During the ceremony, they took an oath to remain subjects of the Ottoman Empire, to treat the empire's friends as friends and its enemies as enemies, and to fully obey the sultan's orders. Circassians, including the Zhane, maintained a loyalty to the Ottoman Empire that was only nominal and conditional. Their allegiance depended directly on the value, honors, and gifts provided by the Ottomans, and was specifically linked to their need for military assistance against Russia.

In 1792, Bahadir Giray Sultan, son of Khan Arslan Giray, left Ottoman Rumelia and fled to Circassia due to local political conflicts and public order issues. His refuge was backed by his atalyk relation with Circassians, particularly the Natukhaj. In November 1793, Bahadir Giray petitioned the Sublime Porte for a pardon to return to Rumelia. Circassian leaders submitted a joint application supporting his pardon. The Ottoman government accepted the petition to prevent him from inciting Circassians and to avoid diplomatic problems with Russia. The Circassians petitioning for his pardon included the Natukhaj, Shapsug, Abzakh, and Zhane.

P. S. Pallas noted in 1793-1794 that the Zhane consisted of six villages, with four on the banks of the Adagum River and two located further down on the shore of a small lake. Zhane was governed a leader named Prince Mishawost Melichdjeriy ("Misost Melikirei") and was capable of bringing 200 well-armed men into the field. His account also noted that while the population engaged in agriculture and cattle rearing, they were poorer than other Circassian communities and had a reputation for robbing.

Aftermath of a Russian attack on a Circassian village.

In 1802, the Black Sea Cossacks who were settled in the Russian military line launched a major campaign against the Zhane following the conflicts. As a result of this attack, the Zhane settlements were completely destroyed, and most of the people were killed or taken as captives. According to data from Klaproth between 1807 and 1808, the Zhane was largely destroyed by the 1790s from wars and plagues. Once consisting of thousands of households, only a small group of 20 to 30 families survived near the streams close to Anapa. According to Bronevsky's records from 1812 to 1813, only 20 to 30 families survived and they settled near Pshets and Khokhay rivers, ruled by their princes Mishawost Melichdjeriy and Netakhoqo.

In 1804, Ottomans demanded that Circassians, including the Zhane, return the loots they had taken during attacks against Russians. This demand was made because the Ottoman administration sought to maintain its peace agreement with Russia while preserving its influence over Circassians.

Following the attack by the Black Sea Cossacks in 1802, the Zhane lost their political independence, and Prince Netakhoqo Zan, who was a respected prince, started to work to reunite the scattered people into a single settlement.

Ottoman documents from 1810 mention a mosque built by a person named Taniy (Adyghe: Таный) in the Zhane village, listed in the Bzhedug region, and its imam as Ali Efendi. In the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire sought to establish a buffer zone in the Caucasus by aligning with local groups to stop the Russian advance. This balance shifted after the 1812 Treaty of Bucharest. In the early 1820s, Russian General Yermolov attacked villages near Anapa, which forced locals into the mountains. New defense positions had established. In October 1821, a large group of Shapsug and Zhane warriors led by a Shapsug leader named Ismail gathered near the Davydovka River to launch an attack near Kalaus. Russian forces led by General Vlasov defeated them, which caused a large unrest in the region. In 1822, General Vlasov started a campaign to the region and destroyed 17 villages and 119 hamlets. In response to this attack in 1823, the Circassians launched new campaigns in which they burned the Kruglolesskaya stanitsa. The clashes and the Russian campaigns to burn villages and take survivors as prisoners continued.

Burning of the Kruglolesskaya stanitsa in 1823.

Tensions from the Greek War of Independence also led to rumors of a large Russian military campaign, causing unrest in the region. Hasan Pasha was appointed Governor of Trebizond and Commander of Anapa and he started diplomatic and religious efforts in 1826. Two Ottoman documents, one from November 1826 and the other from the late 1820s or early 1830s, list the Zhane rulers: Natuk-bek (Netakhoqo), Chuhuk-bek (Pshiquy Chukhoq), and Misos-bek (Mishawost Melichdjeriy). Bitmaght Bechqan was a Zhane prince recorded by Mahir Efendi.

These efforts resulted in an alliance in 1827. Circassian and Abaza people swore allegiance to the Ottoman Empire in Anapa, including the Zhane, in a coordination with other Circassians. Document of the allegiance treaty of Zhane included 18 signatories: 16 from the aristocratic "bek" class and two from the religious class. This included the signature and seal of the last leader of the principality, Prince Netakhoqo Zan (Ottoman Turkish: ظان نطاخوق بيك, romanized: Ẓān Naṭākhūq Bek). As a guarantee of this loyalty, the Ottomans took amanat (hostage) from the Circassians, including two individuals from the Zhane.

Russia opposed these moves and diplomatically protested Istanbul. The text accused the commander of Anapa of training the local populations, obstructing Russian merchants, and inciting hostility. Spies entered the region to disrupt the alliance through gifts for local leaders. This defense system dissolved during the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829). The subsequent Treaty of Adrianople legally ended Ottoman influence in the Caucasus.

Prince Netakhoqo died a few years before 1836, which marked the end of the independent existence and the majority of the Zhane population integrated into other Circassian sub-ethnic groups, mostly to Bzhedug, Shapsug, and Natukhaj. After his death and the following plague, the remaining main Zhane people continued to live in a single settlement on the Pshish River, under the Principality of Cherchenay (Western Bzhedugia).

Aftermath

The remaining Zhane people mixed into the surrounding sub-ethnic groups and lost their identities and dialects during the Russo-Circassian War.

In 1804, there were remnants of the Zhane in the Karakuban region. Russian administrative records from the 19th century confirm that the ownership and settlement structures belonging to the Zhane aristocracy continued to exist. Documents from 1836 mention the name of the Zhane landowner Sheretluqo Bechqan as the manager of a settlement located on Karakuban. The Zhane lands were filled with the Shapsug population over time, however some old ruling noble families maintained their presence within the regional structures. In Russian records from the 1830s, Zhane prince Sheretluqo Alqas and nobleman Muhammadjeriy Osman were recorded as settled in Karakuban after becoming Russian subjects. In 1838, Qizbech Tughuzhuqo attacked the Karakuban Zhane, who had sworn allegiance to Russia.

According to a hypothesis proposed by historian Samir Khotko in collaboration with G.K. Chemso, the famous Shapsug military commander Qizbech Tughuzhuqo Sheretluqo directly descended from the Zhane princes. The Sheretluqo house was a first-rank knight in the Shapsug society, where there were no princes. The primary evidence for this connection is in the family's tamga. Qizbech's grandfather, Yelmeshuq, used a sword-shaped tamga that is almost identical to the tamga of the Bechqan, differing only by a small curl on the handle. In Circassian tradition, such minor modifications were specifically added to show a new branch splitting from the same root. According to the hypothesis, during the decline of the principality, its noble elite integrated into the neighboring Shapsug and Natukhaj societies, allowing the Sheretluqo line to retain its aristocratic status and emerge as prominent, high-ranking leaders within their new communities.

• Tamgas of Bechqan (left), Sheretluqo (middle) and Yelmishequ (right)
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Legacy

According to Khan-Giray and Vasily Potto, the Zhane was once the most powerful and largest principality in Circassia. They had enough military power to launch raids against neighboring principalities and even the distant Kabardians. Sultan Khan-Giray draws a parallel between the Zhane principality and the Roman Empire. He notes that just as Rome collapsed under its own greatness, the Zhane once dominated the region before disappearing. The Zhane were viewed as symbols of a "classical and glorious" era in Circassian history.

Eventually, the Zhane identity shifted from a distinct regional population into a family name, used by families of the Zhane origin.

Society

The Zhane were an aristocratic society widely recognized in Circassia for their military readiness. One narrative describes warriors rushing into battle with half-shaved heads upon hearing the sounds of combat.

A Circassian knight drawn by Aleksander Orłowski

Circassian principalities, including the Zhane principality, had a strict aristocratic structure based on unwritten customary law (Adyghe Khabze). Each princely family kept four first-rank noble families (tlekotlesh) by their side in tradition. Princes (pshi) held the highest position in society. They ruled the population, commanded the military, and led the knight classes (worq). They distributed the loots to keep the knights loyal. They also gave these knights institutional gifts (worq tin) consisting of horses, weapons, armor, and servants.

A prince did not hold absolute power. His authority depended on his bravery in battle, his eloquence, and his generosity. Princes were required to protect their subjects from outsider threats. A prince who failed to provide protection could lose his subjects to other princes. The prince and high-ranking nobles made major decisions in assemblies called Khase. These assemblies gathered to decide on matters of war, peace, and military campaigns.

Knights formed the military power of the principalities. They followed their specific prince during wartime under a system of mutual loyalty and protection. They served as elite units and fought as armored cavalry. Free peasants (feqotl) provided production and sustained the economy.

The lower classes consisted of slaves and servants, who had their own sub-classes. Most slaves were prisoners of war. Social rules protected these people from the cruelty of their masters. Once purchased, they actually gained rights to property and safety.

Folklore

Circassians drawn by Karl Friedrich Vollrath Hoffmann.

According to oral sources compiled by Dubrovin, a Zhane nobleman named "Kait" (Qeyt) (Adyghe: Къет) was known for his bravery and riding skills. After returning from a raid, a young woman questioned whether Qeyt, like two specific famous princes, could survive only on military rations. This questioning led Qeyt to look for the two princes during the night to prove his endurance and courage. Despite a long, dangerous journey and being attacked by guard dogs, Qeyt reached the princes at a guest house. Impressed by his calmness, the princes accepted Qeyt, who became their companion. Later, during a fierce battle, both princes were mortally wounded. They urged Qeyt to run away and save himself, but he refused by saying: "Oh, numerous Zhane! I left everything for you, and shared the military rations with you; now, when you perish, I will share my life!". Qeyt defended the bodies of the fallen princes against the enemy, and died in battle.

According to records by Khan-Girey, in the early 19th century, Zhane prince Pshiquy Chukhoq participated in a conspiracy with the Khimishey prince Alqas Hadjemuqo to murder Alqas's brother, Yaqubequ. Alqas, described as a cruel leader, envied Yaqubequ because his brother was more popular among the people. Under the pretense of helping Yaqubequ abduct a princess for marriage, Alqas and Pshiquy Chukhoq lured him into a trap, where a disguised assassin stabbed Yaqubequ to death. Following the murder, Alqas was condemned by the public, earned the nickname "two-faced" and died in exile.

In 1810s, after Prince Qomewo killed a Bzhedug prince, Netakhoqo delayed paying the blood price, prompting the Bzhedug prince Naghoy to plan an assassination. Naghoy and his brothers later ambushed the unarmed Netakhoqo in a forest. However, Naghoy refused to kill an unarmed elder and escorted him home instead. Following this, Netakhoqo immediately paid the compensations and ended the feud. Qomewo was an influential Zhane prince who was seen as a warrior and led raids. Jealous of his influence, other Zhane princes and relatives conspired against him. They ambushed and captured Qomewo while he was unarmed, performing his evening prayer on his cloak, under the pretext of planning a raid into Shapsug territory. He was taken to a forest for execution by a Bzhedug prince named Naghoy, who held a blood feud against him. A low-ranking warrior shot Qomewo twice in the chest. Before dying, Qomewo mocked his enemies by saying they should have chosen a warrior to kill him, prompting Naghoy to deliver the final sword strike. The Zhane people buried him as a martyr, and his grave was believed to have healing properties.

The Seven Years' War

According to oral sources compiled by Sultan Khan-Giray, the Zhane frequently raised Crimean princes in the atalyk system. The Zhane asked the Crimean Khan to appoint one of these princes as the commander-in-chief (serasker) of all Circassians. The Khan refused, which started a seven-year war. When the Zhane ran out of resources, princes and elders rejected surrender and chose a final battle. To prevent retreat, they placed women and children directly in front of the warriors on the battlefield. Old folk songs describe the outcome where the finest Zhane warriors were killed, the fields were soaked with blood, and women and children were trampled under the hooves of Crimean horses. Zhane traditions claim a victory, while Khan-Giray state the Crimean Tatars won. Due to heavy losses, the Khan stopped trying to fully conquer the Zhane and accepted a symbolic tribute of one wooden spoon per household. The Zhane accepted this, believing the Khan feared them and settled for a token, but the Khan's actual purpose was to count the spoons to determine the number of households and calculate the military strength of Zhane.

A notable leader during the war was Prince Jambolet. Following the war, internal rivalry weakened the principality further. Jambolet's rival, a prince nicknamed Kanly (meaning "bloody" in Turkish due to his execution of opponents), targeted Jambolet's young associate, Tembolet, whose father had died in a past feud with Jambolet's family. Kanly used actors dressed as ghosts at the father's grave to convince Tembolet that his father's spirit demanded revenge, promising him marriage to Zaira, the daughter of the grand prince of Zhane and the husband of Jambolet. Tembolet stabbed Jambolet to death while he was asleep after a hunt. Upon discovering the deception, Tembolet went to Kanly's house and killed him. Believing a report that her husband had entrusted her to Tembolet before his death, Jambolet's widow, Zaira, married Tembolet. Four years later, Tembolet lost his mind and confessed the murder, and Zaira killed him to avenge her husband.

According to Shapsug oral sources compiled by Dubrovin, a Shapsug song describes the war between the Zhane Principality and Crimean Khanate. After suffering several defeats against the Tatars, the Zhane people learned that the Crimeans were gathering again and decided to either win or die fighting. Every Zhane warrior was required to bring a young child to the battle to prevent retreat while defending them. One specific Zhane warrior did not have a child, so he brought his sister-in-law instead. When his sister-in-law asked what would happen to her if he died, that warrior replied that his body would save her and the people. During the close combat battle, a Tatar killed that specific warrior. As the Tatar tried to capture his sister-in-law, the Tatar's horse slipped on the dead warrior's body, causing the Tatar to fall. The Zhane warriors killed the fallen Tatar and removed his armor, which caused the Zhane forces to advance while the Tatars panicked and retreated in defeat. These events are based on the Zhane oral tradition transmitted among the Shapsugs.

Prince families

Circassian prince mounted on a Bechqan breed horse.

There are different theories regarding the origins of the Zhane princes, primarily centering on whether or not they descended from Inal. The genealogical division of the ruling elite, particularly those documented by the 19th-century ethnographer Sultan Khan-Giray, identify the Komeo (Qomewo, Къомео) and the Bechkan (Bechqan, Бэчкъан) as the two primary prince houses and sovereign lineages governing the Zhane. The division of the Zhane political structure into Greater and Lesser Zhane over time suggests that these two families originated as branches from a single lineage.

Circassian and Abaza tamgas by Pallas, which features the Bechqan tamga in the second column of the third row.

Prince Palavandov, a Russian administrative official of the period, alternatively recorded the Qomewo family under the name "Komokh". The Bechqan house was the ruling family that bred the Bechqan horse breed, a breed considered the second finest in Circassia. These horses were noted for their green-tinted coats, long manes, tails, and limbs, as well as their stamina and physical presence. The tamga, which was the ownership mark of this horse breed, was a sword figure with a hilt stamped on the left hip of the animal.

The authority of the Zhane princes extended over Kheghache Principality, whose people lived under Zhane protection. The Kheghache Principality coordinated almost all military and political movements with the Zhane princes, who functioned as a higher authority that ensured their security and represented them in foreign relations. The Zaneqo house, one of the three princely houses of the Principality of Kheghache, is descended from a branch of the Zhane princes.

Demography

By the second half of the 17th century, the combined population of Greater and Lesser Zhane is estimated as approximately 200,000, making it one of the largest ethnopolitical entities within Circassia. In a 1724 report, French consul Xaverio Glavani noted that the Zhane ("Janna") region had 500 households. Around 1740, 300 settlements in Taman peninsula were under the authority of the Zhane prince.

According to Russian records and the Tiflisskiye Vedomosti newspaper, the Zhane population was recorded as 50 households (400 people) in May 1829. According to Russian data collected by the Russian officer Novitsky as an agent from 1830, the Zhane population consisted of 60 households (1,200 people).

According to a statistical table compiled by the Russian General Staff officer Blaramberg in 1834, the Zhane population was recorded as 60 households (600 people), with "Pshikhuye Tsuyukhuk" (Pshiquy Chukhoq) listed as their prince. According to Dubrovin, by the mid-19th century, only "10-20 poor huts" remained of the Zhane population.

Geography

At its peak, the Zhane Principality was stretching from the Taman Peninsula to the Kerch Strait in the west, which bordered Crimea. To the north, the right bank of the Kuban River and the eastern coast of the Sea of Azov. To the south, the Black Sea coast from Novorossiysk to the mouth of the Nebug or Agoy rivers near Tuapse. To the east, the Abin River in the Kuban basin and the Antkhir and Khabl rivers in the plains, where it bordered the Hatuqay Principality.

Ottoman administrative documents from the early 16th century record the Zhane as the "Zan community" (Cemâ’at-i Zanî) in 1529 and "Zhane Beys" (Jana-Beği) in 1539. Western cartographic records reflected the specialized administrative status of the region's rulers during this period. Giacomo Gastaldo's map of 1551 applies the specific title of Cherkeze bano (Circassian Ban) to the ruler governing the Zhane lands.

The geographic and political administration of the territory was organized into two distinct jurisdictions within the 16th century Ottoman administrative hierarchy, recorded as Greater Zhane (Cana-i-Kebîr) and Lesser Zhane (Cana-i-Sağîr). The Lesser Zhane region was part of the Zhane territory. Circassians referred to the Lesser Zhane as the Mountain Zhane (Adyghe: Къушъхьэ Жанэ), using the term to distinguish them from the Greater Zhane who lived in the plains.

According to local oral traditions, by the 17th century, the Zhane inhabited the lower basin of the Psekups River, extending to the left bank of the Kuban River. The territory bordered nomadic steppe groups to the north and Abazins to the east. Mountain passes to the south were inhabited by communities of Circassian "fugitives", while the Shapsugs and Natukhajs formed the western border. Local river courses marked internal boundaries with neighboring Circassian groups. The Cherchenay, a subgroup of the Bzhedug, inhabited the upper and middle reaches of the Psekups River down to the Chigiyako Stream. The core residential area of the Zhane extended south from the Chigiyako Stream toward the confluence with the Kuban River. The relocation of the Ademiy village, belonging to the Chemguy, to the right bank of the Belaya River established a direct border between the Ademiy and the Zhane in the lower Psekups and Belaya basins.

Bay of Sujuk-Kale

Zhane territory included the Taman Peninsula, the right bank of the Kuban River north of Kopyl (Adyghe: Къопыл) up to the Protoka mouth, and a large part of Western Transkuban. Along the Black Sea coast, they ruled a wide area stretching from Novorossiysk (Sujuk-Kale) to Tuapse. In 1640, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi personally recorded that Zhane lands began just north of Tuapse. According to the records of Evliya Çelebi in 1666, Greater Zhane was bounded by the Hayku mountains to the south and extended eastward to the Adakum and Setaze rivers. Lesser Zhane was situated within the drainage basin of the Abin, Habil, Yil, and Aburgan rivers that flowed from the Obur mountains into the Kuban River.

Etymological and geographical connections were noted in 1740 by an anonymous Ottoman author, who recorded an assessment that the name of the settlement of Dzhankoi in Crimea translated literally as "Zhan-village" (Jan-köy), linking it to the historical migrations or vassal status of the Zhane population.

Rulers

Prince	Native Name	Reign	Description
Zan / Zhane	Зан / Жанэ	Late middle ages	Descendant of Inal and the ancestor of Zhane princes in tradition.
Barasabiyeqo ("Berzebuk")	Бэрасбиекъо	fl. 1460s–1470s	Managed the feudal estate of Copa and built a stone castle there.
Qambolet ("Kambelot")	Къамболэт	Late 15th century	Son of Barasabiyeqo and possibly the brother of Antonuq.
Antonuq ("Antonon")	Антоныкъу	fl. 1498	Requested military aid from the Crimean Khan during internal power struggles.
Qanshawuq ("Kansavuk")	Къаншъаукъу	fl. 1538–1551	Father of Siboq. First ruler to accept Ottoman suzerainty; led resistance against Crimean Khan Sahib Giray I.
Siboq ("Sibok") / Vasily	Сибокъу	fl. 1555–1563	Son of Qanshawuq. Led a major delegation to Moscow; allied with Russia before later entering Crimean service. Brother of Antsmugok, Tazdruy and Chuyuk. Either brother or relative of Ichyuruk, Tsurak. Father of Qanshawuq and Kudakek (Alexander).
Mustafa Bey	Мыстафэ	fl. 1564–1571	Sanjak-bey of Zhane under Ottoman administration; resettled subjects in the Taman region.
Akhmet / Aspat	Ахъмэт / АспIатI	fl. 1564	A relative of Mustafa Bey who held significant political influence.
Akhmet / Chiqoqo	Ахъмэт / КIыкъокъо	fl. 1577–1593	Sanjak-bey who escorted the imperial treasury; later rebelled by seizing a shipwrecked merchant ship.
Davud	Даут	fl. 1583	Co-led the escort of the Ottoman military treasury and units to Derbent.
Mehmet Bey	Мэхьмэт	fl. 1586	Tasked by the Ottomans with the safe transport of the military treasury.
Musa Bey	Мусэ / Мос	fl. 1592–1593	Addressed in Ottoman decrees regarding regional security and banditry.
Casibei (Qaziy)	Къазый	fl. 1625–1629	Two brother princes reported by Giovanni da Lucca to control coastal settlements.
"Sancascobei"	Занэкъо(?)
"Djan-ko-bey"	Жанэкъо(?)	fl. 1629	Recorded as a local leader in the Zhane lands near Temryuk.
Hakushmuq	ХьэкушIмыкъу	fl. 1635–1644	Rebellious prince who claimed full independence from Crimea; executed after a long conflict.
Antonuq	Антоныкъу	fl. 1638–1666	Brother of Hakushmuq; became the sole ruler of Greater Zhane with Ottoman/Crimean backing.
Unnamed ruler		fl. 1740	An unnamed ruler who were governing 300 settlements around 1740.
"Imhas"	—	fl. 1780s	Zhane princes recorded in the vicinity of Anapa.
"Bashkoy"	Бэщыкъо(?)
Temir ("Timur / Demir Bey")	Темыр	fl. 1784	Ruler whose representatives petitioned the Ottoman Sultan for aid against Russian encroachment.
Mishawost Melichdjeriy	Мышъэост Мэлычджэрый	fl. 1787–1826	Long-term leader who relocated the Zhane people and led resistance during the Russian wars. Requested direct trade with Istanbul and swore loyalty to the Ottoman Sultan at Anapa.
"Ilchent Bey"	—	fl. 1792	They signed the official request for merchant ships and recognized Ottoman suzerainty. They took a formal oath of loyalty to the Ottoman Empire alongside other Zhane princes.
Tatarsau ("Tatar Shu Bey")	Тэтэршъау
Netakhoqo Zan	Зан НэтIахъокъо	fl. 1812–1830s	The last major prince; attempted to reunite the survivors. After his death, the principality was fully dissolved.
Pshiquy Chukhoq	Цухъокъу Пщыкъуй	fl. 1826–1834	Listed as a prince in Ottoman/Russian records and also gets mentioned in Khan-Giray's accounts.
Sheretluqo Bechqan	Бэчкъан ШэрэлIыкъо	fl. 1836	Manager of a settlement on the Karakuban after the principality's dissolution.