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Zangfu

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Zang Fu)
Zangfu in simplified Chinese characters

The zangfu (simplified Chinese: 脏腑; traditional Chinese: 臟腑; pinyin: zàngfǔ) are a system of organ-related functional concepts in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that is built on a cultural view or belief system that has been influenced by Daoism, Confucianism and Chinese folk religion.In this view the Zangfu occupying a fundamentally different conceptual position than in Western evidence based biomedicine, instead of being formative structures, they are relationship or pattern based observations. In this traditional theory In the Suwen (素問) often translated as Basic Questions or Plain Questions, is the foundational theoretical text of traditional Chinese medicine within this text it is stated that the zangfu were not strictly just physical organs but had an energetic component, this early text integrated a foundational understanding of gross anatomy with systemic, cosmological relationships. [1][2][3]

In this ancient East Asian cultural view of medicine called today TCM, the zang organs are considered yin and the fu organs yang. Each principal zang is paired with a fu and associated with one of the five phases of wuxing. The zang are described as manufacturing and storing qi, blood and bodily fluid, while the fu transmit and digest substances. In TCM theory, a group of "extraordinary fu" is also recognized, with functions that combine characteristics attributed to the two groups.

The underlying assumptions and theories of the zangfu system have not been established nor verified by scientific modern evidence-based medicine.

TCM history of ZangFu Anatomy

[edit]

In this ancient Eastern theory zangfu were originally considered to represent physical organs in the Suwen. A few rare waves of human dissection throughout Chinese history have contributed some refinements to the rough anatomical assumptions in traditional Chinese medicine, though no fundamental errors were corrected (blood vessels remained mistaken as "thin meridians").[4] In this context, the influx of western anatomical knowledge lead to a crisis for TCM. This was resolved by Yun Tieqiao [zh]'s introduction of Zangxiang (藏象/脏象) theory in the 1920s, which decoupled the zangfu from anatomical organs.[5]

Yin/yang and the Five Elements

[edit]

Each zangfu pattern in this theory is believed to have a yin and a yang aspect, the zang corrispond to be yin, and the fu to, yang.[6]

Since the concept of the zangfu was developed on the basis of wuxing philosophy, they are incorporated into a system of allocation to one of five elemental qualities (i.e., the Five goings or Five Phases). The zangfu share their respective element's allocations (e.g., diagnostics of colour, sound, odour and emotion etc.) and interact with each other cyclically in the same way the Five Elements do: each zang relationship has one corresponding fu that it disperses, and one that it reinforces, tonifies or sedates.[7]

The correspondence between zangfu and Five Elements are stipulated as:

  • Fire (火) = Heart (心) and Small Intestine (小肠) (and, secondarily, Sanjiao [三焦, ‘’Triple Burner‘’] and Pericardium [心包])
  • Earth (土) = Spleen (脾) and Stomach (胃)
  • Metal (金) = Lung (肺) and Large Intestine (大肠)
  • Water (水) = Kidney (肾) and Bladder (膀胱)
  • Wood (木) = Liver (肝) and Gallbladder (胆)

Details

[edit]

The zang organs' through the theory of Chinese medicine claim the essential functions to consist in manufacturing and storing qi and blood (and, in the case of the Kidney, jing or essence). The hollow fu organs' main purpose is claimed to be to transmit and digest (传化, pinyin: chuánhuà) substances (like waste, food, etc.).[8]

Zang organs

[edit]

Each zang is claimed to have a corresponding "orifice" or sensory organ that it "opens" into. This means the functional entity of a given zang is claimed to includ the corresponding orifice's functions (e.g. blurry vision is primarily seen as a dysfunction of the Liver zang because the Liver channel "opens" into the eyes).

In listing the functions of the zang organs, TCM regularly uses the term "governing" (主; zhǔ) – indicating that the main responsibility of regulating something (e.g. blood, qi, water metabolism etc.) lies with a certain zang.

Although the zang are primarily functional entities, TCM gives vague locations for them – namely, the general area where the anatomical organ of the same name would be found. One could argue that this (or any) positioning of the zang is irrelevant for the TCM system; there is some relevance, however, in whether a certain zang would be attributed to the upper, middle or lower jiao.

Xīn, 心 (Heart)

[edit]

The Heart (心, pinyin: xīn) is a functionally defined entity and not equivalent to the anatomical formative viscera within the Western evidence based Medical model.[9][10][11] As a zàng, the Heart is considered the Emperor of all the zung-fu and Regarding its stipulated functions, the Heart[12]

  • ‘’stores‘’ (藏, pinyin: cáng)[13] the shén (神), and is usually translated as mind or consciousness; paired with Small Intestine
  • governs xuě (blood) and vessels/meridians
  • opens into the tongue
  • reflects in facial complexion, the glow and radiance.
  • governs joy (喜, pinyin: xǐ)[14]

The Heart's function is said to be strongest on the Chinese Horary (body) clock between 11am and 1pm. Disturbed function of the Heart typically presents as palpitations, arrhythmia, insomnia, dream disturbed sleep, poor memory, restlessness, or even delirium and shock.[15]

Xīn Bāo, 心包 (Pericardium)
[edit]

The pericardium,[9][16] in this tradition, includes the pericardial sac, the Pericardium meridian, the small intestine and some parts of the brain.[17]

The Pericardium is also called the "heart protector",[17] and, for clinical purposes, is considered a yin organ[18] paired with the yang organ San Jiao. In general theory, the Pericardium is not distinguished from the Heart. It is also the first line of defence against the Heart from External Pathogenic Influences. In terms of the Five Elements, these organs are both associated with the fire element.[19]

The Pericardium has a meridian named for it, which reflects the health of the organ. According to traditional Chinese medicine, it is often best to approach the treatment of heart problems via the Pericardium, rather than the heart directly. [20]

Is claimed to:

Since there are only five zang but six fu channels, the remaining meridian is assigned to the Xīn Bāo, 心包 (Pericardium). Its concept is closely related to the Xīn, 心 (Heart), and its stipulated main function is protect from attacks by excessive emotions and exterior pathogenic factors.

Pí, 脾 (Spleen)

[edit]

The Pí, 脾; is considered to be a yin in nature, and is paired with its yang partner the associated yang organ is the Wèi,胃. Both of these concepts are attributed to the Earth element within the five phase or element, wuxing theory of the Earth element.

Regarding its stipulated functions, the Pí is said to

  • govern "transportation and transformation" (运化; yùn-huà), i.e. the extraction of jīng weī (精微), lit. "essence bits", usually translated as food essence or gu qi (谷氣), sometimes also called jīng qì (精氣; "essence qi")[21] – and water – from food and drink, and the successive distribution of it to the other zàng officials.
    • the jīng weī constitutes a large part of the body's acquired qì (the other part coming from respiration by facilitation of Fèi, 肺 zàng). In this spirit, the Pí is also called "root of the postnatal" (后天之本; hoùtiān zhī běn)[22] – as opposed to the congenital qì, which is stored by the Shèn,腎 zàng. The Pí absorbs jīng weī from the food after it has been preprocessed by the Wèi and the Xiǎo Cháng 小肠 and then distributes it to the whole body, especially upwards to the Fèi and Xīn 心 , where jīng weī is transformed into qì and xuě (blood). Thus, TCM also describes the Spleen as the source of "production and mutual transformation" (生化; shēng-huà)[22] of qì and xuě.
    • the Pí distributes the water extracted from the food and distributes it to the whole of the body, especially to the Lung and Kidney zàng, and thus assists the body's water metabolism.
  • "contains" (统; tǒng)[22] the blood inside the vessels (this is also one of the functions of pì[23])
  • governs muscles and limbs
  • opens into the lips (and mouth)
  • houses the yì (意; "thinking")
  • governs intellect, pondering (思; sī)[24]

Within this traditional Chinese theory it is also associated body fluid is saliva,
Its holding function the Gu qi is said to be strongest between 9 and 11am. It is said when functioning well, digestion will be good, the muscles will be strong and circulation will be efficient. Dysfunction typically presents as diarrhea, malnutrition, edema, weak/atrophic muscles, greasy taste in the mouth, or excessive bleeding and prolapse.[15] The Spleen is especially weakened by Damp one of the Six Excesses and overthinking.[16]

Gān, 肝 (Liver)

[edit]

As a zàng organ, the Liver (Chinese: 肝; pinyin: gān) is considered to be yin in nature. Its associated yang fu organ is the Gallbladder. Both the Liver and Gallbladder are attributed to the Wood element and the season of spring in traditional Chinese Wuxing theory.

Regarding its stipulated functions, the Liver

  • governs "unclogging and deflation" (Chinese: 疏泄; pinyin: shū-xiè)[25] primarily of qì and emotions. The free flow of qì in turn will ensure the harmonious interaction of qi, blood, digestion, and Jinye.
    • the free flow of qì and xuě (blood) is particularly significant since TCM stipulates that stagnation of that flow will cause pain and illness.
    • by association via its respective element each zàng and Fu organ is the origin of a certain emotion reflected in the Shen or overall spirit of the patient. The free flow of these five (and other) emotions is thus linked to the unrestrained and harmonious circulation of the qì of the zàng organs.
  • "stores" (藏, pinyin: cáng)[26] blood
  • opens into the eyes[27]
  • governs the tendons
  • reflects in the nails
  • Associated with the emotion of anger (怒, pinyin: nǜ)[28]
  • houses the hún (魂, "Ethereal Soul")

Its associated body fluid is tearing.
The Liver function is regarded to be strongest between 1–3 am. Its blood is responsible for the repetitive cycles of human life, for example menstruation. The Huang Di Nei Jing describes the Liver as "the general of an army". It secretes bile, which is stored in the Gallbladder. A properly functioning Liver organ will ensure that the tendons are properly nourished and not too tense or gristly. The normal direction of Liver qi is outwards. When it "rebels" it can attack the Spleen, causing nausea and poor appetite. Dysfunction of the Liver typically presents as irritability, anger, anxiety, depression, agitation, poor self esteem, headaches, dysmenorrhea, belches, a sour taste in the mouth, distension, pain under the costal arches, pain in the upper abdomen, tremors/numbness/stiffness of the limbs, blurry vision, or jaundice.[15] Liver blood stagnation may lead to amenorrhea, blood clotting, or a bearing down sensation with menstruation.[16]

Fèi, 肺 (Lung)

[edit]

The lungs (Chinese: 肺; pinyin: fèi) is a yin organ that occupies the uppermost position among the zang-fu organs, and is known as the "canopy" of the zang-fu organs. Due to the lung's position in the body, toward the back of the chest and in the upper half of the abdomen, it has yin within yang qualities and is more yang than other zang organs besides the heart.[29] Each zang organ is paired with a fu organ, the lung's paired organ is the large intestine.[29] Its meridians connects with the large intestine, with which makes it internally related. The lung and large intestine are connected by two meridians, Yangming large intestine meridian of hand and the Taiyin lung meridian of hand.[30] The Lung and its paired organ are associated with the element of metal and the emotion of grief. Each of the Five Elements have a color associated with them.[31] Due to its association with metal, the lungs are associated with the color white.[31] The peak time for the Lungs according to the Chinese Horary body clock is from 3–5 am.[32] Illnesses that are rooted in the lung are most commonly due to weakness of wei qi or water regulation.[33] Common symptoms indicating lung disease are coughing, weak voice, asthma, and fish smelling mucus or saliva.[34][35]

The Lung has five principle functions:

  • governing qi and controlling respiration. They take in clear and expel turbid Natural Air Qi (Kong Qi)
  • controlling disseminating and descending
  • regulating the water passages
  • controlling the skin and body hair
  • opening into the nose
  • housing the po (魄, Corporeal Soul), paired with Large Intestine

Dominating qi has two aspects: dominating the qi of respiration and dominating the qi of the entire body. Dominating the qi of respiration means the lung is a respiratory organ through which the qi of the exterior and the qi from the interior are able to mingle. Via the lung, the body inhales clear qi from the natural environment and exhales waste qi from the interior of the body. Dominating qi of the entire body means that the function of the lung in respiration greatly influences the functional activities of the body, and is closely related to the formation of pectoral qi, which is formed from the combination of the essential qi of water and food, and the clear qi inhaled by the lung. When the lung's function of dominating qi is normal, the passage of qi will be unobstructed and respiration will be normal and smooth. Deficiency of lung qi may lead to general fatigue, feeble speech, weak respiration, shortness of breath and excessive perspiration.[36]

As a general rule, the upper zang-fu organs have the function of descending, and the lower zang-fu organs the function of ascending. Since the lung is the uppermost most yang of the zang organ, its qi descends to promote the circulation of qi and body fluid through the body and to conduct them downwards. Dysfunction of the lung in descending may lead to upward perversion of lung qi with symptoms such as cough and shortness of breath. Regulating the water passages means to regulate the pathways for the circulation and excretion of water. Circulation of body fluids is a function of many organs working together as a team, including the lungs. The role of the lung in promoting and maintaining water metabolism depends on the descending function of lung qi (Zong Qi) Under normal circumstances, the lungs are capable of sending fluids downwards to the kidneys, which pass the fluids to the bladder for excretion. Dysfunction may result in dysuria, oliguria, and oedema.[37]

Shèn, 腎 (kidney)

[edit]

In TCM, the Shèn, 腎( kidney) is associated with Ming Men 命門, the gate of vitality. A famous Chinese doctor named Zhang Jiebin (approximately 1563-1640) wrote "there are two kidneys, (kidney yin and yang), with the Gate of Vitality between them. The kidneys are the organs of water and fire, the abode of yin and yang, the sea of essence, and it determines life and death."[9][38] The kidneys are associated with the element water, nighttime and Winter in Wuxing theory.

The main functions of the kidney are:

  • storing essence (jing) and dominating human reproduction and development
  • dominating the water metabolism and the reception of qi from the air (Kong Qi)
  • producing marrow to fill up the brain and spinal cord.
  • dominating the bones.
  • manufacturing blood
  • manifesting in the head hair.
  • opening into the ear and dominating the two lower yin (the anus uterus and urethra)
  • dominating anterior and posterior orifices.
  • housing the Zhi (will-power)
  • fluid secretions are urine, semen, and vaginal fluids.[39]

The kidney's primary function is storing and controlling 'essence', or jing. Jing is the essence of qi and the basis for body matter and functional activities. There are two types of jing, congenital, prenatal jing and acquired or postnatal jing, which are stored in the kidney and known as kidney jing. Unlike qi, jing circulates in long cycles (seven years for females and eight years for males) governing developmental stages. The function of jing is to promote growth, development and reproduction, provide the basis for kidney qi, produce marrow, and provide the basis for jing, qi and shen (mind).[40] The ancient book Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen claimed that essence stored in the kidney was vital for human life, health and longevity.[41][42] Congenital jing comes from the parents and determines basic constitution; it cannot be altered, but it can be positively influenced by acquired jing. Acquired jing is produced from digestion of food and water by the spleen and stomach, and respiration through the air that we breath and stored and in the kidney to be used by circulating within the body. Congenital and acquired jing have a promoting/ controlling/ transformational relationship with each other, through their interaction jing is produced; all three play a part in determining growth and development, sexual maturation, reproduction, recovery and aging.[43] Every new jing cycle prompts a new cycle of development. For example, congenital jing exists from conception, carrying on from the jing of the parents. Once a child is born, acquired jing is responsible for replenishing congenital jing and starting the first independent jing cycle which, for the next seven years in girls and eight years in boys, will control growth and development. When the child loses its baby teeth, its body begins the pre-adolescence cycle. The next jing cycle is adolescence, when kidney jing matures and causes the ren meridian to open and flow. At this time, part of the kidney jing transforms into tian gui, which develops and maintains reproductive function. In the next stage physical growth finishes, and eventually declining jing leads to exhaustion of tian gui, thus extinguishing reproductive ability. Inevitably, decline of jing leads to old age, sickness and eventually death.[44]

All of the four kidney energy aspects are essential in growth and development. These four aspects include kidney jing (essence), kidney yin (water), kidney yang (fire) and kidney qi. All of the body's functions rely on the heat provided by kidney qi and the gate of life (the space between the left and right kidneys).[45] Kidney jing is the foundation of the yin and yang of all the body's organs. Kidney yin and yang are the primordial yin and yang, and the root of yin and yang to the zang organs. Kidney yin moistens and nourishes, while kidney yang provides warmth and promotes organs and tissue.[46] kidney yang is the dynamic force necessary to start the system of balancing water metabolism, which also employs the spleen, lung, liver and san jiao.[47]

The kidney is considered a water element. As the body's water gate, it regulates water metabolism and reception of qi. The foundation of yin fluid that nourishes and moistens the body is kidney yin. When the kidney receives fluid the qi of kidney yang divides it into two types, clear and turbid. Clear fluid is sent upward through the San Jiao to moisten the lung and for the lung to distribute to the body, while turbid fluid is sent downward for expulsion by the bladder. The water gate is also responsible for regulating the opening and closing of drainage ducts, namely the bladder and anus, which rely on the activity of kidney qi. Also, while lung qi controls respiration, kidney qi coordinates inhalation.[48]

The kidney is responsible for hair luster, production of bone and brain matter, correct functioning of the ears, and regulating the opening and closing of the bladder and anus. Mentally, its responsible for long-term memory, while emotionally it is linked to when healthy determination, or willpower (zhi) and under stress fear.[49]

Fu organs

[edit]

Xiǎo Cháng 小腸 (Small Intestine)

[edit]

The Xiǎo Cháng (simplified Chinese: 小肠; traditional Chinese: 小腸) governs the separation of the clear from the turbid. The small intestine in this theory further digests food decomposed initially by the stomach. The clear, referring to the essence of water and grain and to the large amount of fluid, is absorbed by the spleen and distributed to the whole body. The turbid is sent downwards to the large intestine, while the excess fluid is absorbed by the bladder. The disorders of deficiency with the small intestine are attributable to failure to separate the clear from the turbid in the digesting process and within the psychological aspects of one's life, manifesting physically as stool and urinary disturbance, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, scanty urine, and emotional confusion and unrest, .[50]

The Small intestine and its paired organ, the Heart, are associated with the element of fire and the emotions of joy or agitation.[51][52]

San Jiao三焦 (Triple Burner)

[edit]

San Jiao ("triple burner", or "triple energizer", or "triple heater") (Chinese: 三焦; pinyin: sānjiāo) is a concept in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and acupuncture that has no Western medical equivalent. It is within TCM considered a member of the Fu categorisation of functional organs which is the hollow space inside the trunk of the body.[53]

It is believed to be a body cavity of some kind which has the ability to influence other organs, and overall health, mainly through the free movement of Qi and fluids, the fundamental energy or life force on the microcosm and on the macrocosm it is associated with the interactions between The Heavens, humans and earth.[54]

San Jiao means "triple burner". The upper burner relates to the heart, lungs and the respiratory function in the thorax, therefore in this line of thinking to Heaven. The middle burner relates to the organs top of the stomach, spleen, liver and gallbladder and the digesting function, therefore belongs to Human. The lower burner relates to the organs below the abdomen, Kidneys, Bladder and the urogenital functions, therefore belongs to Earth.If the triple burner functions well, then the organs are in harmony. According to traditional Chinese medicine, the triple burner is essential in transporting fluids throughout the body, removing itching and heat, treating swellings, and overcoming problems with various organs.[55]

Wei 胃 (Stomach)

[edit]

The Wei, is a concept from traditional Chinese medicine as distinct from the Western medical concept of stomach, is more a way of describing a set of interrelated parts than an anatomical organ. The Stomach and its paired organ, the Spleen, are associated with the element of earth and the emotions of anxiety and stress.[56]

Dan 胆 (Gall Bladder)

[edit]
Dan in traditional Chinese medicine, incorporating the physiological and psychological connections of the traditional characters meaning of bravery, determination and guts.

In TCM, the Dan 胆 (gallbladder) is classified as both a Fu (yang) organ and an Extraordinary Fu organ. The Dan, through the eyes of a practitioner, is therefore associated with decision-making, courage, and assertiveness. Its function is to store and regulate bile (which aids digestion) and to govern the quality of decision-making and judgement.[9] When the Dan's function is balanced, a person is said to have good judgment, self esteem and the ability to make clear decisive decisions. Conversely, imbalances can lead to indecisiveness, timidity, fixated impulsive behaviour or poor judgment and sleep disturbance.[57][58]

Theoretical dual classification:

  • Yang Fu Organ: It pairs with the Liver (Zang/Yin organ), it receives bile, and helps digest food.
  • Extraordinary Fu Organ: they are classified to be unlike other Fu organs as it is never in contact with raw food or waste. It stores a refined substance (bile) rather than excreting waste.[59]

In TCM, the gallbladder has three major functions:

  • It stores the bile manufactured by the liver, secretes it into the intestines to digest fats;
  • It governs the capacity to make decisions, take action, and execute plans;
  • It provides Qi to the tendons, ensuring smooth, flexible joint movement.

Excess patterns within this the theoretical model are usually characterized by pathogenic Heat, Damp-Heat, or Stagnation, often stemming from prolonged stress, constrained Liver Qi, or a poor diet. Signs of gallbladder deficiency (虚) are:

  • Emotional: Timidity, fearfulness, chronic lack of courage, and a feeling of insecurity.
  • Neurological/Sleep: Easily startled, frequent sighing, and restless sleep accompanied by vivid or frightening dreams.
  • Sensory: Dizziness, blurred vision, and tinnitus.
  • Physical: Spontaneous sweating and general lassitude.
  • Tongue & Pulse: Pale tongue with a thin, white coating; pulse is typically weak, fine, or thready.[60]

Large Intestine

[edit]

The large intestine (simplified Chinese: 大肠; traditional Chinese: 大腸; pinyin: dà cháng) meridian communicates with the lung (肺), with which it is externally-internally related. The two paired organs are associated with the metal element (金) and the emotion of grief. The main function of the large intestine is to receive the waste material sent down from the small intestine, absorb its fluid content, and form the remainder into faeces to be excreted. Pathological changes of the large intestine will lead to dysfunction in this transportation function, resulting in loose stools and constipation. The large intestine's function is said to be the strongest between 5am and 7am.[61] Large intestinal disease (dà cháng bìng) is attributable to evils such as heat, cold, stagnation, dampness, and wind, or to vacuity. Rumbling intestines or pain around the umbilicus, constipation or diarrhea, bloody stool or tenesmus with blood and pus in the stool, and prolapse of the rectum are signs of large intestine disease. The main patterns are listed below:

  • Large intestinal vacuity cold (dà cháng xü hán)
  • Large intestinal humor depletion (dà cháng yè kuï)
  • Large intestinal damp-heat (dà cháng shï rè)
  • Large intestinal heat bind (dà cháng rè jié)
  • Large intestinal cold bind (dà cháng hán jié)[62]

Bladder

[edit]

As distinct from the Western medical concept of urinary bladder, this concept is more a way of describing a set of interrelated functions than an anatomical organ.[63] Its paired Yin (Zang) organ is the Kidney. Both are associated with the element of water and the emotion of fear.

As opposed to western medicine, where the bladders function is the storage and excretion of urine, the bladder in traditional Chinese medicine has extended functions, including how fluids are transformed during urine production. Fluids are still sent from the small intestine to the bladder for storage, but the bladder's capabilities are dependent on the kidney yang. If the kidney is yang deficient, the bladder may not have the sufficient qi and heat to transform fluids properly into urine. This could result in overly clear urine that must be excreted more frequently.[64]

Extraordinary Fu

[edit]

The Extraordinary Fu (Qi Heng Zhi Fu) are said to be six unique organs because they resemble hollow Yang organs (Fu) but function as solid Yin organs (Zang) by storing vital essences instead of moving or excreting waste.[65]

Nǎo, 脑 (Brain)

[edit]

The Nǎo known in Chinese medicine as the "Sea of Marrow,"vis is claimed to control memory, concentration, senses, and houses the mind (Shen).

Sui (Marrow)

[edit]
Suǐ, The Traditional Chinese character.

The Sui, 髓 (Marrow) is a vital, Yin-nourishing substance fundamentally tied to the Shèn,腎 (Kidneys). In TCM, Sui does not generate itself but is produced from a reserve of Kidney Essence (精Jing). When the Kidney Essence is abundant it overflows and transforms into Sui. The Sui then fills the physical skeletal system and the central nervous system.[66] A quote from a classical Chinese medical text called Lingshu Jing (the Spiritual Pivot, 靈樞經) states:

"At conception, essence is formed. After essence is formed, the brain and Sui are born."

Sui's interconnected forms are:

  • Bone Marrow: Bone Marrow fills the skeletal cavities to nourish and strengthen the bones.
  • Spinal Marrow: Travels up the spine, acting as the structural pathway for energy.
  • Brain Marrow: Accumulates in the skull to form the brain, which TCM calls the "Sea of Marrow" (Sui Hai).[31]

Sui is the foundation in TCM for four critical functions that being firstly nourishing the brain, supporting the spinal cord, and fills the bones, maintaining skeletal strength and our body's defence from illness and disease, therefore keeping the body and mind healthy and vital:

  • The Production of Blood: As it interacts with the Spleens food energy (Gu Qi) and kidney essence (Jing) to manufacture Blood. If Marrow is weak, Blood deficiency (anemia) can occur.
  • Strengthening of the Bones: As it acts as the internal structure of the skeletal system, Strong Sui creates dense, fracture-resistant bones and strong teeth.
  • Nourishing the Brain: By providing the brain with physical energy and substance for memory, concentration, sight, hearing, and overall intelligence.
  • Supporting Immunity: Because it is directly tied to Yuan Qi (Original Qi), healthy Sui keeps the body's defensive anti pathogenic energies strong to protect against illness and infections.[67][68]

The function of marrow carries significant implications for health maintenance and disease prevention. Conditions affecting bodily functions, health and longevity historically with this theory. In TCM, Marrow Excess (Sui Hai You Yu / 髓海有余) is a highly unique clinical state. Normally with regular organs in classical Zangfu theory an excess would indicates a pathological condition as seen in phlegm heat stagnation or blood stasis, an excess of the Sea of Marrow can be regarded as positive and a healthy physiological state. The classical text Huangdi Neijing states: "When the Sea of Marrow is in excess, the person feels exceptionally light, full of vitality, and their physical strength exceeds normal limits."[69] This text also goes on to say when the sea of marrow is abundant and overflowing, the person feels exceptionally light, full of vitality, and their physical strength and health exceeds normal limits.[70][71]

If there is an accumulation in the head or bones excess due to a excessive pathogenic factor such as Damp-Phlegm or Blood Heat the presentation is Heavy Headedness severe headaches, pressure and pain, severe restless, agitation, insomnia and manic beht. Agitation and Mania: When excessive energy turns into "Heat" in the Sea of Marrow, it can cause severe restlessness, insomnia, or manic behaviors. Pain and pressure in the long bones, when phlegm mists the mind creating severe mental confusion and epilepsy.

When Kidney Essence is depleted due to aging, chronic illness, overwork or over sexualised, Marrow becomes deficient. This often manifests as weak legs, bone disorders (such as osteoporosis), dizziness, tinnitus, poor memory, or mental dullness. There is neurological and cognitive functional involvement including a rapid decline in short-term memory and retention, brain fog that involves a pronounced mental sluggishness, exhaustion and inability to focus and blurred vision. Skeletal & Structural involvement including chronic cold fatigue and brittleness and weakness of the back, knee joints, bones, and teeth. Systemic & Constitutional symptoms include chronic fatigue and exhaustion that does not resolve from rest. Premature graying, thinning, or loss of the hair the complexion is withered,dull, pale and or darkened skin tone. Blood deficiency signs and symptoms include an anaemic complexion with pale nail beds, lips, lose of hope and drive and chronic dizziness and unsteady gate.[72][73][74][75]

Gu (Bones)

[edit]
Gu, Chinese Character for Bones

The 骨 Gǔ (bones) according to TCM theory are a hollow vessel that contain the marrow that is derived from Kidney Jing or the essence of life itself.[9][76] The bones are considering an extension of the kidney network as in TCM theory the Kidneys govern the bones and store essence Jing, which produces marrow and blood (calcium for building and repair ) to nourish and maintain the skeletal system from the inside out, also the brain the sea of marrow through the spinal cord. When this essence declines through aging, chronic stress, illness, or accident the bones and mind becomes brittle and weak.[77][78]


Within the theory of traditional Chinese medicine the bones are attributed to the bellow functions.

  • Housing Marrow: The Gǔ act as the physical container that holds, protects, and sustains the marrow.
  • Storing Essence: Because marrow is a manifestation of Kidney prenatal Jing, bones function as a deep storage system for the body's constitutional energy.
  • Providing Structure: They form the structural framework of the body, allowing for upright posture and movement.
  • Vital Organ protection: They physically shield the internal Zang-Fu organs from external trauma.

Gǔ have the ability to regenerate as part of the healing mechanism after an accident or trauma or I'll health, including musculo skeletal growth and ongoing refining and reestablishing [79]

The extraordinary nature of bones within the tradition of traditional Chinese medicine relies heavily on their relationship with other organs within the theory of TCM, particularly the kidneys, liver, spleen and teeth.[80][81]

Mai (Blood Vessels)

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The Mai act as the pathway for the circulation of Qi and blood.

Dan (Gallbladder)

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The Dan is said to functions both as an ordinary Fu organ and an Extraordinary organ. It supposedly stores pure bile instead of waste.

Bao (Uterus/Womb)

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Controls menstruation and fetal development and claims to be heavily influenced by Kidney Qi the, Bao Gong (胞宫) and the Penetrating and Conception vessels.

Criticism

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The concept of the zangfu is not identified by evidence-based medicine – the underlying assumptions and theories have not been verified or falsified by scientific controlled experiments.

The verification through trials and peer-reviewed studies for the applications of traditional Chinese medicine's mechanisms in a clinical setting are underrepresented in the West, and as a result are classified as pseudoscientific, before appropriation of the collection of current scientific enquiry and data.[82][83]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ↑ Yang, Shizhe (2011). "[Human body structure in Su Wen]". Zhonghua Yi Shi Za Zhi. 41 (3). Beijing, China : 1980: 155–160. ISSN 0255-7053. PMID 21781545.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  2. ↑ "WHO international standard terminologies on traditional Chinese medicine". www.who.int. Retrieved 2026-08-30.
  3. ↑ Jones, Alexander (2008-01-30). Cambridge History of Science: Ancient Science. Cambridge Univ Pr (Sd). ISBN 978-0-521-57162-3. OCLC 163113290.
  4. ↑ YU, Gengzhe (2009). "被怀疑的华佗——中国古代外科手术的历史轨迹" [Hua Tuo in doubt: the historical trajectory of surgeries in ancient China] (PDF). 清华大学学报 (哲学社会科学版 ) (in Chinese). 1 (24): 82–95. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2025-02-22. Retrieved 2025-02-07.
  5. ↑ 澎湃新闻. "于赓哲谈中国古代的医疗与社会" [YU Gengzhe on medicine and society in ancient China]. www.sohu.com (in Chinese).
  6. ↑ by citation from the Huangdi Neijing's Suwen: ‘’言人身脏腑中阴阳，则脏者为阴，腑者为阳。‘’[Within the human body's zangfu, there's yin and yang; the zang are yin, the fu are yang]. As seen at: 略论脏腑表里关系 [outline on the relationships between the zang-fu] (in Chinese). 22 January 2010. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
  7. ↑ "What is Zang-fu?". Acupuncture and Massage College. Archived from the original on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
  8. ↑ 中医基础理论-脏腑学说 [Basics of TCM theory - The zangfu concept] (in Chinese). 11 June 2010. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 "WHO international standard terminologies on traditional Chinese medicine". www.who.int. Retrieved 2026-08-31.
  10. ↑ Baum, Emily (2018). Invention of Madness: State, Society, and the Insane in Modern China. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-58075-3.
  11. ↑ Larre, Claude (1995). Rooted in spirit: the heart of Chinese medicine. Elisabeth Rochat de la Vallée. Barrytown, NY: Station Hill Press. pp. 22–29. ISBN 978-0-88268-120-7.
  12. ↑ Hinrichs, T. J.; Barnes, Linda L. (2012). Chinese medicine and healing: an illustrated history. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04737-2. OCLC 789661411.
  13. ↑ 中医世家 2006, chapter 1.2.2.
  14. ↑ 阵雨 (15 December 2009). 中医理论:基础理论:第二节 内伤病因:一、七情:（二）七情与脏腑气血的关系 [TCM theory - Basic theory - Chapter 2: Internal causes of disease - 1. The Seven Emotions - 1.2. The relations between the Seven Emotions, the zang-fu, and qi and blood] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  15. 1 2 3 Cultural China 2007
  16. 1 2 3 Unschuld, Paul U. (2018-01-09). Traditional Chinese Medicine: Heritage and Adaptation. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-17501-2. OCLC 985974563.
  17. 1 2 "The Pericardium Channel, Self Love and Relationships". Five Seasons Medicine. April 18, 2010. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  18. ↑ Calandra, Teri (September 12, 2023). "The Pericardium According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)". Calandra Center for Health & Wellness. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  19. ↑ Geary, Rachel (August 10, 2021). "The Function of the Pericardium". Torbay Acupuncture Centre. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  20. ↑ Hicks, Angela (2010). Five element constitutional acupuncture. John Hicks, Peter Mole. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 165–172. ISBN 978-0-7020-3175-5. OCLC 520441265.
  21. ↑ 中医世家 2006, chapter 3.2.1.1.
  22. 1 2 3 中医世家 2006, chapter 3, lead
  23. ↑ 郭卜乐 (24 October 2009). 气 [Qi] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
  24. ↑ 阵雨 (15 December 2009). 中医理论:基础理论:第二节 内伤病因:一、七情:（二）七情与脏腑气血的关系 [TCM theory – Basic theory – Chapter 2: Internal causes of disease – 1. The Seven Emotions – 1.2. The relations between the Seven Emotions, the zang-fu, and qi and blood] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  25. ↑ 中医世家 2006, chapter 4.2.1.
  26. ↑ 中医世家 2006, chapter 4.2.2.
  27. ↑ Fatrai/Uhrig (2015), p. 27
  28. ↑ 阵雨 (15 December 2009). 中医理论:基础理论:第二节 内伤病因:一、七情:（二）七情与脏腑气血的关系 [TCM theory – Basic theory – Chapter 2: Internal causes of disease – 1. The Seven Emotions – 1.2. The relations between the Seven Emotions, the zang-fu, and qi and blood] (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 10 October 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  29. 1 2 Li, Zhongzi; 李中梓 (2010). Huangdi Neijing : a synopsis with commentaries = "Neij ing zhi yao" yi gu. Y. C. Kong, 江潤祥. Hong Kong. ISBN 978-962-996-927-1. OCLC 869372245.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  30. ↑ Wen-Lu, Chen; Jia-Na, Hong; Xin-Ning, Zhang; Ibarra-Estrada, Emmanuel; Li-Sheng, Wan; Sha-Sha, Li; Shi-Kai, Yan; Xue, Xiao (2020-12-01). "Network Biological Modeling: A Novel Approach to Interpret the Traditional Chinese Medicine Theory of Exterior-Interior Correlation Between the Lung and Large Intestine". Digital Chinese Medicine. 3 (4): 249–259. doi:10.1016/j.dcmed.2020.12.004. ISSN 2589-3777. S2CID 234567397.
  31. 1 2 3 PACHUTA, DONALD M. (1991). "Chinese Medicine: The Law of Five Elements". India International Centre Quarterly. 18 (2/3): 41–68. ISSN 0376-9771. JSTOR 23002364.
  32. ↑ Cheng (1987) p. 36
  33. ↑ Wu, Hong-Zhou (2013). Introduction to Diagnosis in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Zhao-Qin Fang, Pan-Ji Cheng. Hackensack, N.J.: World Century Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-938134-14-2. OCLC 855505010.
  34. ↑ A general introduction to traditional Chinese medicine. Jiuzhang Men, Lei Guo. Boca Raton: Science Press/CRC Press. 2010. ISBN 978-1-4200-9173-1. OCLC 680039124.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  35. ↑ Morgan, David (1999-09-25). Visual Piety: A History and Theory of Popular Religious Images. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21932-8.
  36. ↑ Lu, Henry (1994) p. 18
  37. ↑ Cheng, X (1987) p. 43
  38. ↑ Unschuld, Paul U.; Tessenow, Hermann; Zheng, Jinsheng (2011). Huang di nei jing su wen: an annotated translation of Huang Di's Inner Classic -- Basic Questions. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26698-8. OCLC 664451006.
  39. ↑ Cheng, et al. 1987, p. 32-33 & Dong, 2006, p. 34
  40. ↑ Cheng, et al. 1987, p. 32; Maciocia, 2005, p. 46 & Yin, & Shuai, 1992, p. 34
  41. ↑ Zhu, Hanmin; Liu, Qi; Li, Wei; Huang, Shuming; Zhang, Bo; Wang, Yumei (2022-03-29). "Biological Deciphering of the "Kidney Governing Bones" Theory in Traditional Chinese Medicine". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2022 1685052. doi:10.1155/2022/1685052. ISSN 1741-427X. PMC 8983196. PMID 35392645.
  42. ↑ Volker, Scheid (2007). Currents of Tradition in Chinese Medicine. Eastland Press. pp. 114–122. ISBN 978-0939616565.
  43. ↑ Cheng, et al. 1987, p. 32 & Maciocia, 2005, p. 46
  44. ↑ Cheng, et al. 1987, p. 32; Maciocia, 2005, p. 45-46 and Zhiya, Yanchi, Ruifu & Dong, 1995, p. 193-194)
  45. ↑ Maciocia, (2005), p. 49
  46. ↑ Yin, & Shuai, 1992, p. 34-35
  47. ↑ Zhiya, et al., 1995, p. 194
  48. ↑ Cheng, et al. 1987, p. 32, 34; Dong, 2006, p. 34 & Zhiya, et al., 1995, p. 194
  49. ↑ Dong, 2006, p. 29-30 & Maciocia, 2005, p. 93)
  50. ↑ The Zang-fu Organs Silk Road China, Retrieved 19 January 2008 Archived June 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  51. ↑ https://theory.yinyanghouse.com/acupuncturepoints/smallintestine_meridian_graphic
  52. ↑ "Small Intestine Meridian (Hand Tai Yin) Points". www.acatcm.com.
  53. ↑ "San Jiao (Chinese medicine)", Wikipedia, 2026-09-15, retrieved 2026-09-23
  54. ↑ Avijgan, Majid; Avijgan, Mahtab (2015-07-16). "Meraque or Triple Energizer (San Jiao): Actual or Virtual Organ in Traditional Medicine - A Hypothetical Viewpoint". Integrative Medicine International. 2 (1–2): 9–20. doi:10.1159/000433537. ISSN 2296-7362.
  55. ↑ Landgren, Kajsa; Landgren, Kajsa (2008). Ear acupuncture. ScienceDirect (Online service) (English 1st ed.). Edinburgh New York: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3317-9.
  56. ↑ Wu, Xie-Ning (1998-02-15). "Current concept of Spleen-Stomach theory and Spleen deficiency syndrome in TCM". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 4 (1): 2–6. doi:10.3748/wjg.v4.i1.2. ISSN 1007-9327. PMC 4767755. PMID 11819216.
  57. ↑ Liu, Zhanwen (2009). Essentials of Chinese Medicine. London: Springer London Springer e-books. ISBN 978-1-84882-596-3.
  58. ↑ Larre, Rochat de la Vallée, Claude, Elisabeth (1999). The Liver. Monkey Press. ISBN 9781872468075.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ↑ "The Wood Element the Gallbladder in TCM". www.acuhealthacupuncture.com.au. Retrieved 2026-07-13.
  60. ↑ Huang, Yong; Zhu, Lifang, eds. (2024). Textbook of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Volume 1: Introduction, Examination, Etiologies and Pathogenesis and Differentiation of Syndromes (1st ed. 2024 ed.). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-99-5295-3.
  61. ↑ Cheng (1987) p. 41
  62. ↑ Deadman, Peter (2007) A Manual of Acupuncture
  63. ↑ "中藥方劑圖像數據庫 - 概覽頁面" (in Chinese). 2020-12-07. Archived from the original on 2020-12-07. Retrieved 2023-02-24.
  64. ↑ "Functions of the Bladder (TCM), Acupuncture & Traditional Chinese Medicine information (Vancouver, Chinese herbal medicine, tuina massage, Chinese herbs, pictures, women's health, Chinese medicine history, common disease treatment, acupuncture theory, points), weblog, discussion board, bulletin board, forums". Archived from the original on 15 June 2013.
  65. ↑ Wu, Hong-Zhou (2013). Fundamentals of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Fundamentals of Traditional Chinese Medicine. World Century compendium to TCM. Zhao-Qin Fang. Singapore: World Century Publishing Corporation. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-938134-29-6.
  66. ↑ Ong, Wei-Yi; Wu, Ya-Jun; Farooqui, Tahira; Farooqui, Akhlaq A. (2018). "Qi Fu Yin-a Ming Dynasty Prescription for the Treatment of Dementia". Molecular Neurobiology. 55 (9): 7389–7400. doi:10.1007/s12035-018-0908-0. ISSN 1559-1182. PMC 6096952. PMID 29417476.
  67. ↑ PhD, By Felice Dunas. "Marrow: East & West | Acupuncture Today". acupuncturetoday.com. Retrieved 2026-07-15.
  68. ↑ Unschuld, Paul U. (2010). Medicine In China A History Of Ideas. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26613-1. OCLC 528397682.
  69. ↑ Unschuld, Paul U. (2016). Huang Di Nei Jing Ling Shu: The Ancient Classic on Needle Therapy (The Complete Chinese Text with an Annotated English Translation). University of California Press. pp. Chapter 33. ISBN 978-0520292253.
  70. ↑ Zhu, Hanmin; Liu, Qi; Li, Wei; Huang, Shuming; Zhang, Bo; Wang, Yumei (2022). "Biological Deciphering of the "Kidney Governing Bones" Theory in Traditional Chinese Medicine". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: ECAM. 2022 1685052. doi:10.1155/2022/1685052. ISSN 1741-427X. PMC 8983196. PMID 35392645.
  71. ↑ Ma, Hong-Di; Deng, Yan-Ru; Tian, Zhigang; Lian, Zhe-Xiong (2013). "Traditional Chinese medicine and immune regulation". Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 44 (3): 229–241. doi:10.1007/s12016-012-8332-0. ISSN 1559-0267. PMID 22826112.
  72. ↑ Wang, Z. Q.; Li, J. L.; Sun, Y. L.; Yao, M.; Gao, J.; Yang, Z.; Shi, Q.; Cui, X. J.; Wang, Y. J. (2013), "Chinese herbal medicine for osteoporosis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trails", Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE): Quality-assessed Reviews [Internet], Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (UK), pp. 1–11, doi:10.1155/2013/356260, PMC 3572690, PMID 23431336, retrieved 2026-07-16
  73. ↑ Ding, Xue; Ma, Xiuxia; Meng, Pengfei; Yue, Jingyu; Li, Liangping; Xu, Liran (2024). "Potential Effects of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Anti-Aging and Aging-Related Diseases: Current Evidence and Perspectives". Clinical Interventions in Aging. 19: 681–693. doi:10.2147/CIA.S447514. ISSN 1178-1998. PMC 11070163. PMID 38706635.
  74. ↑ Lu, Henry C. (2004). The Original Chinese Texts of Nei-Jing (Su Wen, Ling Shu) and Nan-Jing. International College of Traditional Chinese Medicine of Vancouver. p. 204.
  75. ↑ Wang, Yunlai; Feng, Ye; Li, Manman; Yang, Mo; Shi, Gaoxiang; Xuan, Zihua; Yin, Dengke; Xu, Fan (2022). "Traditional Chinese Medicine in the Treatment of Chronic Kidney Diseases: Theories, Applications, and Mechanisms". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 13 917975. doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.917975. ISSN 1663-9812. PMC 9340222. PMID 35924053.
  76. ↑ Kuriyama, Shigehisa (2002-03-15). The Expressiveness of the Body and the Divergence of Greek and Chinese Medicine. Zone Books. ISBN 978-0-942299-89-2.
  77. ↑ Ju, Dahong; Liu, Meijie; Zhao, Hongyan; Wang, Jun (2014). "Mechanisms of "kidney governing bones" theory in traditional Chinese medicine". Frontiers of Medicine. 8 (3): 389–393. doi:10.1007/s11684-014-0362-y. ISSN 2095-0225. PMID 25204291.
  78. ↑ Yan, Shenyu; Du, Qiaohui; Zhao, Lijun; Liu, Qing; Wu, Meiling; Xu, Ziqiao; Shen, Jiangang (2026-02-27). "Traditional Chinese Medicine for osteoporosis management: from molecular mechanisms to drug discovery". Chinese Medicine. 21 (1): 72. doi:10.1186/s13020-026-01353-9. ISSN 1749-8546. PMC 12947499. PMID 41749251.
  79. ↑ Zhu, Huang, Lifang , Yong (2024). Textbook of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Introduction, Examination, Etiologies and Pathogenesis and Differentiation of Syndromes · Volume 1. Springer Nature Singapore. ISBN 978-981-99-5296-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  80. ↑ Song, Chaoqun; Zeng, Lingfeng; Zhao, Changwei (2025). "The role of active constituents of in traditional Chinese medicine for primary osteoporosis: a mechanistic review". Frontiers in Endocrinology. 16 1647984. doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1647984. ISSN 1664-2392. PMC 12481519. PMID 41036137.
  81. ↑ Maciocia, Giovanni (1989). The Foundations of Chinese Medicine. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-443-03980-5.
  82. ↑ "Us Congress Acupuncture Act". 2022.
  83. ↑ Xu, Qihe; Bauer, Rudolf; Hendry, Bruce M.; Fan, Tai-Ping; Zhao, Zhongzhen; Duez, Pierre; Simmonds, Monique S. J.; Witt, Claudia M.; Lu, Aiping; Robinson, Nicola; Guo, De-an; Hylands, Peter J. (2013-06-13). "The quest for modernisation of traditional Chinese medicine". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 13 132. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-13-132. ISSN 1472-6882. PMC 3689083. PMID 23763836.

Sources

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  • Cheng, X.-n., Deng, L., & Cheng, Y. (Eds.). (1987). Chinese Acupuncture And Moxibustion. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
  • Cultural China (2007), "Chinese Medicine : Basic Zang Fu Theory", Kaleidoscope → Health, retrieved 2010-12-21
  • Dong, Lin (2006). Lecture Notes For COTH2140 Chinese Medicine Theory 1 History Of Chinese Medicine Component. RMIT University: Bundoora West.
  • Agnes Fatrai, Stefan Uhrig (eds.). Chinese Ophthalmology – Acupuncture, Herbal Therapy, Dietary Therapy, Tuina and Qigong. Tipani-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-9815471-1-5.
  • Kaptchuk, T. (2000). "The Web That Has No Weaver: Understanding Chinese Medicine, 2nd ed." Mcgraw-Hill. Amazon.com
  • Maciocia, G. (2005). The Foundations Of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text For Acupuncturists And Herbalists. Philadelphia, Massachusetts: Elseverier Churchill Livingstone.
  • Oguamanam C. (2006). "International Law and Indigenous Knowledge: Intellectual Property, Plant Biodiversity, and Traditional Medicine" University of Toronto Press
  • Yin, H.-h., & Shuai, H.-c. (1992). Fundamentals Of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Beijing, China: Foreign Languages Press.
  • Zhiya, Z., Yanchi, L., Ruifu, Z. & Dong, L. (1995). Advanced Textbook On Traditional Chinese Medicine And Pharmacology (Vol. I). Beijing: New World Press.
  • 中医世家 (2006-07-18), "第一节 五脏", 中医基础理论, retrieved 2010-12-16

Further reading

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  • Val Hopwood (1997). "Introduction to Traditional Chinese Medicine theory". In Val Hopwood; Maureen Lovesey; Sara Mokone (eds.). Acupuncture and Related Techniques in Physical Therapy. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 8-11. ISBN 9780443055935.
  • Li, Zhongzi; (2010). Huangdi Neijing : a synopsis with commentaries. Y.C. Kong. Hong Kong.
  • Lu, Henry C. (1994). “Chinese Natural Cures” New York, NY: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishing
  • Christopher M. Norris (2001). Acupuncture. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780750651738.
  • Pachuta, Donald M., (1991). Chinese Medicine: The Law of Five Elements. New Delhi, India: India International Centre.
  • Yanhua Zhang (2007). Transforming Emotions with Chinese Medicine. SUNY Press. p. 39. ISBN 9780791469996.
  • Zhiya, Z., Yanchi, L., Ruifu, Z. & Dong, L. (1995). Advanced Textbook On Traditional Chinese Medicine And Pharmacology (Vol. I) . Beijing: New World Press.
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