Yajna

A yagna being performed by Nambudiris of Kerala

In Hinduism, Yajña or Yagna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, lit. 'act of devotion, worship, offering in fire', IAST: yajña), also known as Havana in modern contexts,^[1] is a ritual done in front of a sacred fire (agni), often with mantras.^[2] Yajna has been a Vedic tradition, described in a layer of Vedic literature called the Brahmanas, as well as in the Yajurveda.^[3] The tradition has evolved from offering oblations and libations into sacred fire to symbolic offerings in the presence of said sacred fire.^[2]

Yajna rituals-related texts have been called the Karma-kanda (ritual works) portion of the Vedic literature, in contrast to the Jnana-kanda (knowledge) portion found in the Vedic Upanishads. The proper completion of Yajna-like rituals was the focus of Mimansa school of Hindu philosophy.^[4] Yajna have continued to play a central role in Hindu rites of passage, such as weddings.^[5] Modern major Hindu temple ceremonies, Hindu community celebrations, or monastic initiations may also include Vedic Yajna rites, or alternatively be based on Agamic rituals.

Etymology

The word yajna (Sanskrit: यज्ञ, romanized: yajña) has its root in the Sanskrit yaj meaning 'to worship, adore, honour, revere' and appears in the early Vedic literature, composed in 2nd millennium BCE.^[6]^[7] In Rigveda, Yajurveda (itself a derivative of this root) and others, it means "worship, devotion to anything, prayer and praise, an act of worship or devotion, a form of offering or oblation, and sacrifice".^[6] In post-Vedic literature, the term meant any form of rite, ceremony or devotion with an actual or symbolic offering or effort.^[6]

A yajna included major ceremonial devotions, with or without a sacred fire, sometimes with feasts and community events. It has, states Nigal, a threefold meaning of worship of the deities (devapujana), unity (sangatikarana) and charity (dána).^[8]

The Sanskrit word is related to the Avestan term yasna of Zoroastrianism. Unlike the Vedic yajna, however, the Yasna is the name of a specific religious service, not a class of rituals, and they have "to do with water rather than fire".^[9]^[10] The Sanskrit word is further related to Ancient Greek ἅζομαι (házomai), "to revere", deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root *Hyeh₂ǵ- ("to worship").

History

Vedic period

Yajna was prominent in the Rig Vedic period, with earliest reference to the ritual found in the Rigveda samhita.^[11] When the ritual fire – the divine Agni, the god of fire and the messenger of gods – was deployed in a Yajna, mantras were chanted.^[7]^{[better source needed]} The hymns and songs sung and oblations offered into the fire were a form of hospitality towards the Vedic gods. The offerings were believed to be carried by Agni to the gods; the gods in return were expected to grant boons and benedictions, and thus the ritual served as a means of spiritual exchange between gods and human beings.^[7]^{[better source needed]}

The Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana defines a sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and dakshina (fees, gifts) offered during the yajna.^[12] For gifts and fees, the text recommends giving cows, clothing, horses or gold.^[12] The oblations recommended are cow milk, ghee (clarified butter), seeds, grains, flowers, water and food cakes (rice cake, for example). Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts, such as in the Taittiriya Shakha 2.10 of the Krishna Yajurveda).^[13]

In the householder's daily ritual, Malamoud notes that the five great sacrifices (mahayajnas) were the "devayajna" (to the gods), the "pitryajna" (to the ancestors), the "bhutayajna" (to the beings), the "manusyayajna" (to human beings), and the "brahmayajna" (to the Vedas).^[14] The brahmayajna includes individual recitation of the Veda (svadhyaya). bhutayajna includes food left for other creatures, and the manusyayajna includes hospitality to a guest.^[15]

The nature of Vedic sacrifice and rituals evolved over time, with major changes during the 1st millennium BCE, changes that influenced concepts later adopted by other traditions such as Buddhism.^[12] Early Vedic period offerings involved animal sacrifice, but the rituals were progressively reinterpreted over time, substituting the offerings and making it non-violent or symbolic, with the superiority of knowledge and celebration of sound of mantra replacing the physical offerings.^[16]

Upanishads

In early Upanishads, states Sikora, the meaning of the term Yajna evolved from "ritual sacrifice" performed around fires by priests, to any "personal attitude and action or knowledge" that required devotion and dedication.^[7] Ultimately, the external rituals were reformulated and replaced with "internal obTlations performed within the human body".^[12] These ideas of substitution, evolution from external actions (karma-kanda) to internal knowledge (jñana-kanda), were highlighted in many rituals-related sutras, as well as specialized texts such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad and Pranagnihotra Upanishad.^[17]^[16]

The oldest principal Upanishads, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (~700 BCE) in chapter 8, for example state,^[18]

अथ यद्यज्ञ इत्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येव यो ज्ञाता तं
विन्दतेऽथ यदिष्टमित्याचक्षते ब्रह्मचर्यमेव
तद्ब्रह्मचर्येण ह्येवेष्ट्वात्मानमनुविन्दते ॥ १ ॥

What is commonly called Yajna is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only through the chaste life of a student does he who is a knower find that,
What is commonly called Istam (sacrificial offering) is really the chaste life of the student of sacred knowledge,
for only having searched with chaste life of a student does one find Atman (Soul, Self) ||1 ||
— Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1 ^[18]^[19]

The Mundaka Upanishad classifies the four Vedas and six Vedangas as lower knowledge, and the higher for the knowledge of the imperishable. It compares the sacrificial rites to frail boats, holds that the heavenly worlds obtained through them lasts until its merit is spent, and directs the seeker to a teacher, since the uncreated cannot be attained through works.^[20] Diana Eck describes the Upanishadic "crossing over" as the soul's transition towards Brahman through knowledge imparted by a guru.^[21]

The later Upanishads expand the idea further by suggesting that Yoga is a form of Yajna (devotion, sacrifice).^[19] The Shvetashvatara Upanishad in verse 1.14, for example, uses the analogy of Yajna materials to explain the means to see one's soul and God, through inner practice and without external rituals.^[19]^[22] It states, "by making one's own body as the lower friction sticks, the syllable Om as the upper friction sticks, then practicing the friction of meditation, one may see the Deva who is hidden, as it were".^[22]

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita reinterprets the meaning of yajna through the "wheel of sacrifice" or yajnachakra. According to Angelika Malinar, the "wheel of sacrifice" represents a cycle of mutual dependence in which sacrifice is necessary to sustain relationships that "are regarded as the basis of life."^[23] Furthermore, Jayashree Sathe interprets the Bhagavad Gita as extending the concept of yajna beyond ritual offerings into a sacrificial fire, to include the performance of one's prescribed duties (niyata-karma) without attachment to their results. Here, sacrifice takes the form of giving up attachment to the fruits of one's actions as well as one's ego.^[24]

Buddhism

Tadeusz Skorupski states that these sacrifices were a part of ritual way of life, and considered to have inherent efficacy, where doing these sacrifices yielded repayment and results without the priests or gods getting involved.^[12] These Vedic ideas, adds Skorupski, influenced "the formulation of Buddhist theory of generosity".^[12] Buddhist ideas went further, criticizing "the Brahmins for their decadence and failure to live in conformity with the Brahmanic legacy of the ancient Brahmins", who claimed the Vedic ancients "lived in self restraint, were ascetics, had no cattle, no gold, and no wealth".^[25] The Buddha sought return to more ancient values, states Tadeusz Skorupski, where the Vedic sages "had study as their grain and wealth, guarded the holy life as their treasure, praised morality, austerity and nonviolence; they performed sacrifices consisting of rice, barley and oil, but they did not kill the cows".^[25]

Types

Priests performing Vedic yajña at Vishnu Kunda in Thirumakudalu Narasipura

Old Durga Mandir, Banaras

Different types of yajna

The Kalpa Sutras classify yajnas in several ways. The broadest division is between srauta yajnas and grhya yajnas.^[26]^[27]

Srauta yajnas

The older, srauta yajnas are public sacrifices derived from the sruti that require the maintenance of three sacred fires, and participation of multiple specialized priests.^[28]^[29] Srauta rites are called solemn rites and were dedicated to Agni and Soma.^[30] Although the significance of srauta rituals is not clear^[31], they are discussed in three main categories: isti or haviryajna, which involve oblations of rice or barley; animal sacrifices or pashubandha; and soma, which involve oblations prepared from the soma plant.^[29] The main sources for these rites are the Srauta Sutras, each belonging to a particular Vedic school and describing the role of priests in the rituals of that school.^[30]

Grhya yajnas

Grhya yajnas are domestic rituals performed by householders using a single sacred fire and priest. They encompass daily offerings and rites of passage (samskaras), including ceremonies marking birth, marriage, and death.^[28]^[29] In Hindu weddings for example, a yajna is performed in which the sacrificial fire serves as a witness of the marriage, and the couple walk around the fire.^[32]^[5]^[33]^[34] Domestic rites are also performed for activities such as vows, seasonal ceremonies, and protection from danger.^[35]

A Vedic Yajna plays a central role in Hindu weddings.

Core elements

Fire

The central element of all Vedic sacrifices is the ritual fire which is identified as both an element as well as the Hindu fire god, Agni. Agni serves as a medium through which offerings are conveyed to the gods.^[36] The fire altar is seen as a passage between the earthly and divine realms, with the gods present within the sacrificial arena and worshippers' prayers raised toward heaven.^[21] Agni also serves as a witness in domestic rituals such as Hindu marriage.^[37]

Mantras

Mantras are metrical texts that are usually recited, muttered, or chanted and are an essential element to yajnas. According to Andrè Padoux, mantras are essential to accomplishing the sacrifice and contribute to its efficacy. Such mantras comprise of hymns (rc), sacrificial formulas (yajus)^[38] or chants (sāman). ^[39]

Offerings and style

Oblations are offered into the fire. Among the ingredients offered as oblations in the yajna are ghee, milk, grains, cakes and soma.^[40] Offerings depended on the type of yajna conducted. For example, the Agnihotra, one the simplest srauta rituals uses milk as its main oblation.^[41] Yajnas where milk products, fruits, flowers, cloth and money are offered are called homa or havan.^[42]

The duration of a yajna depends on its type, some last only a few minutes whereas others are performed over a period of hours, days or even months. Some yajnas were performed privately, while others were community events.^[40]^[43] In other cases, yajnas were symbolic, such as in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad hymn 3.1.6, where "the mind is the Brahmin of sacrifice" and the goal of sacrifice was complete release and liberation (moksha).^[44]

The blessings offered ranged from long life, gaining friends, health and heaven, more prosperity, to better crops.^[45]^[46]

Participants

Shrauta yajnas are typically performed by four priests: the Hota, the Adhvaryu, the Udgata and the Brahma.^[47] The Hota is the chief priest who recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu assists in the physical performance of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda, and offering oblations. The Udgata chants hymns from the Samaveda, while the Brahma is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by using supplementary verses from the Atharva Veda.^[44]^[27]^[48] Domestic (grhya) yajnas are usually performed by one priest.^[49]

The sacrifice is sponsored by a patron known as the yajamana or "sacrificer", who is often accompanied by his wife, the yajmanapatni. The ritual is usually performed on behalf of the yajamana by the Adhvaryu priest, although the yajamana may perform the rituals on his own.^[36]^[29]

Method

A Yajna Vedi (square altar) with Samagri (offerings) on left, and a Yajna in progress (right)

The Vedic yajna ritual is performed in the modern era on a square altar called Vedi (Bedi in Nepal), set in a mandapa or mandala or kundam, wherein wood is placed along with oily seeds and other combustion aids.^[50] However, in ancient times, the square principle was incorporated into grids to build large complex shapes for community events.^[51] Thus a rectangle, trapezia, rhomboids or "large falcon bird" altars would be built from joining squares.^[51] The geometric ratios of these Vedi altar, with mathematical precision and geometric theorems, are described in Shulba Sutras, one of the precursors to the development of mathematics in ancient India.^[51] The offerings are called Samagri (or Yajāka, Istam). The proper methods for the rites are part of Yajurveda, but also found in Riddle Hymns (hymns of questions, followed by answers) in various Brahmanas.^[50] When multiple priests are involved, they take turns as in a dramatic play, where not only are praises to gods recited or sung, but the dialogues are part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes.^[50]

The Brahmodya Riddle hymns, for example, in Shatapatha Brahmana's chapter 13.2.6, is a yajna dialogue between a Hotri priest and a Brahmin priest, which would be played out during the yajna ritual before the attending audience.^[50]

References

↑ Kapoor 2002, p. 7797.
1 2 Nigal 1986, p. 80-81.
↑ Laurie Patton (2005), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal, Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415772273, pages 38–39
↑ Randall Collins (1998), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674001879, page 248
1 2 Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 153–233
1 2 3 Monier Monier-Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-8120831056 (Reprinted in 2011), pages 839–840
1 2 3 4 Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595247127, page 86
↑ Nigal, p. 81.
↑ Drower, 1944:78
↑ Boyce, 1975:147–191
↑ A Dictionary of the Vedic Rituals - Chitrabhanu Sen. p. 9.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Skorupski 2016, pp. 78–81.
↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 79.
↑ Malamoud 1996, p. 272.
↑ Malamoud 1996, pp. 14, 268.
1 2 Skorupski 2016, pp. 79–84.
↑ Deussen, Paul (1997). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 645–651. ISBN 978-81-208-1467-7.
1 2 Robert Hume, Chandogya Upanishad 8.5.1, Oxford University Press, page 266
1 2 3 Jack Sikora (2002), Religions of India, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0595247127, page 87
↑ Deussen 1997, p. 569-587.
1 2 Eck, Diana L. (2012). India: A Sacred Geography. Harmony Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-385-53190-0.
1 2 Robert Hume, Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.5.14, Oxford University Press, page 396
↑ Malinar, Angelika (2009-10-29). The Bhagavadgita: Doctrines and Contexts. Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–94. ISBN 978-0-521-12211-5.
↑ Sathe, Jayashree (2006). "The Meaning of Yajña in the Concept of Yajñacakra in Bhagavadgītā". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 66/67: 367–371. ISSN 0045-9801.
1 2 Skorupski 2016, pp. 86–87.
↑ Prasoon 2008, Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp.
1 2 Tachikawa, Musashi; Bahulkar, S. S.; Kolhatkar, Madhavi Bhaskar (2001-01-01). Indian Fire Ritual. Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-1781-4.
1 2 Kumari Dada. An Introduction To Hinduism Gavin Flood D. OUP ( See Other Books). pp. 40–41.
1 2 3 4 Staal & Somayajipad 1983, pp. 35–50.
1 2 Staal 1996, p. 66.
↑ Staal & Somayajipad 1983, pp. 37.
↑ Hazen, Walter. Inside Hinduism. Lorenz Educational Press. ISBN 9780787705862. P. 34.
↑ Shivendra Kumar Sinha (2008), Basics of Hinduism, Unicorn Books, ISBN 978-81-7806-155-9, The two rake the holy vow in the presence of Agni ... In the first four rounds, the bride leads and the groom follows, and in the final three, the groom leads and the bride follows. While walking around the fire, the bride places her right palm on the groom's right palm and the bride's brother pours some unhusked rice or barley into their hands and they offer it to the fire ...
↑ Office of the Registrar General, Government of India (1962), Census of India, 1961, v. 20, pt. 6, no. 2, Manager of Publications, Government of India, The bride leads in all the first six pheras but follows the bridegroom on the seventh
↑ Staal 1996, p. 283.
1 2 The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press. 1998-09-24. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9.
↑ Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8239-2287-1.
↑ Staal 2009, p. 30.
↑ Padoux, André (2022), "Mantra", Wiley Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 505–516, doi:10.1002/9781119144892.ch27, ISBN 978-1-119-14489-2, retrieved 2026-07-29{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
1 2 Ralph Griffith, The texts of the Shukla Yajurveda EJ Lazarus, page i–xvi, 87–171, 205–234
↑ Staal & Somayajipad 1983, pp. 40–41.
↑ "What is Havan? – Definition from Yogapedia". Yogapedia.com. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
↑ Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 124
1 2 Robert Hume, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.1, Oxford University Press, pages 107- 109
↑ Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (Editor: Gavin Flood), Blackwell, ISBN 0-631215352, pages 76–77
↑ Staal 2009, pp. 127–128.
↑ Mahendra Kulasrestha (2007), The Golden Book of Upanishads, Lotus, ISBN 978-8183820127, page 21
↑ Nigal 1986, pp. 79.
↑ Staal 1996, p. 120.
1 2 3 4 Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (1987). History of Indian Theatre. Abhinav Publications. p. 48. ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.
1 2 3 Plofker 2009, pp. 16–27.

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