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// Workers AI · dad joke modeWhat did West Prussia say to East Prussia? "You're always pushing me west.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from West Prussian)
Province of West Prussia
Provinz Westpreußen (German)
Prusy Zachodnie (Polish)
Province of Prussia
1773–1829
1878–1919
Coat of arms of West Prussia
Coat of arms
West Prussia (red), within the Kingdom of Prussia (blue), within the German Empire, as of 1878
West Prussia
Anthem
Westpreußenlied
"Song of West Prussia"
(1878–1919)
CapitalMarienwerder
(1773–1793, 1806–1813)
Danzig
(1793–1806, 1813–1919)
DemonymWest Prussian
Area 
• 1910
25,534 km2 (9,859 sq mi)
Population 
• 1910
1,703,474
History 
• Established
1773
• Division by Napoleon
1806
• Restored
1815
1829–1878
1919
• Disestablished
1919
Political subdivisionsDanzig
Marienwerder
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Royal Prussia
Duchy of Warsaw
Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)
Province of Prussia
Duchy of Warsaw
Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)
Province of Prussia
Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Free City of Danzig
Region of West Prussia
Posen-West Prussia
Today part ofPoland

The Province of West Prussia (German: Provinz Westpreußen; Kashubian: Zôpadné Prësë; Polish: Prusy Zachodnie) was a province of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and from 1878 to 1919. West Prussia was established as a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773, formed from Royal Prussia following its annexation in the First Partition of Poland. West Prussia was merged with East Prussia in 1829 to form the Province of Prussia, then re-established in 1878 when the merger was reversed under the German Empire. West Prussia was a province of the Free State of Prussia within Weimar Germany in 1918–1919, but it lost most of its territory to the Second Polish Republic and the Free City of Danzig under the Treaty of Versailles. It was therefore dissolved in 1919, with its remaining western territory merging with Posen to form the Prussian Province Posen–West Prussia. Its eastern territory became part of East Prussia as the Region of West Prussia.

West Prussia's provincial capital alternated between Marienwerder (present-day Kwidzyn, Poland) and Danzig (Gdańsk, Poland). It was notable for its ethnic and religious diversity due to immigration and cultural changes. In the early Middle Ages, the bulk of the region was inhabited by West Slavic Lechitic tribes, but the Teutonic Order's conquest of the region in the 14th century resulted in extensive German colonisation. As a result of Germanisation, Germans became the most numerous ethnic group in West Prussia by the middle of the 19th century, although their distribution was uneven. Poles and Kashubians made around 36% of the population of the province. The majority of Germans were Protestant, while most Poles were Catholic. There was also a significant Jewish minority.

Geography

[edit]
Physical map of West Prussia in the year 1910

The landscape of West Prussia consisted of the lower reaches of the Vistula River (German: Weichsel, Polish: Wisła) near its mouth at the Baltic Sea and neighbouring lands to the west and east.

In the west, the province shared a border with easternmost Brandenburg and comprised the lands between the provinces of Posen and Pomerania. This region of the province was characterized by the Baltic Uplands, with southward flowing rivers joining the Netze (Polish: Noteć). The Brahe (Polish: Brda) drained much of the area, joining the Vistula after passing through Bromberg (Polish: Bydgoszcz). Numerous large expanses of woodland, including the Tuchola Forest, were located in this part of the province. Farther north near the Baltic Sea is the Kashubian Lake District, where the highest point of the former province, Turmberg (Polish: Wieżyca), reached 329 meters above sea level. The headwaters of Pomeranian rivers such as the Stolpe (Polish: Słupia) and Leba (Polish: Łeba) were located in these uplands.

In the north is the Baltic coast, consisting of a graded shoreline with landmarks such as the Hel Peninsula stretching 35 kilometers into Gdańsk Bay and the Vistula Fens where the river meets the sea. The Vistula delta encompasses a heavily cultivated area of approximately 2,000 square kilometers of land, much of it below sea level. Danzig (Polish: Gdańsk), the largest city of the province, was founded at the northwestern end of the delta. The Nogat river, a distributary of the Vistula, flows to the northeast past the city of Marienburg (Polish: Malbork) and into the Vistula Lagoon. Farther east near Elbing (Polish: Elbląg), the border with East Prussia crossed the Vistula Spit, Vistula Lagoon, and the Elbląg Upland.

In the southeast, the course of the Vistula River forms a wide, flat plain, with adjacent escarpments sometimes exceeding 60 meters in height above the river valley. The area included the fertile Culmerland (Chełmno Land), with historic cities such as Culm (Polish: Chełmno), Thorn (Polish: Toruń), and Graudenz (Polish: Grudziądz). The Culmerland stretched eastward to the border with East Prussia, partially bounded on the south by the path of the river Drewenz (Polish: Drwęca), which formed part of the province's southeastern border with Congress Poland and the Russian Empire.

History

[edit]

Pre-provincial period

[edit]
Royal and Ducal Prussia in 1525
The fortress Ordensburg Marienburg in Malbork, Poland. Founded in 1274 by the Teutonic Order on the river Nogat, it is the world's largest brick castle. After 1466 it served as one of several royal residences of the Polish kings until 1772.

In 1308 the Polish King Ladislaus the Short requested help from Heinrich of Plötzke of the Teutonic Order against Waldemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal, in a dispute over the historically Polish region of Pomerelia, (also known as Gdańsk Pomerania). Heinrich not only drove the Brandenburgians out of Danzig but went on to occupy the rest of Pomerelia and made it part of the State of the Teutonic Order.[1] In the takeover of Danzig, Heinrich's men destroyed much of the city and killed a large, although still disputed, number of the city's inhabitants.[2] The possession of Danzig and Pomerelia by the Teutonic Order was questioned by the Polish kings Ladislaus and Casimir the Great in legal suits at the papal court in 1320 and 1333. Both times, and also in 1339, the Teutonic Order was ordered by the Pope to return Pomerelia and other of their lands to Poland, but they did not comply.[3]

The events set the stage for a series of Polish–Teutonic Wars during the 14th and 15th centuries. Under Teutonic rule, western, mainly German-speaking farmers, traders and craftsmen were encouraged to settle in the region.[citation needed] In 1454 the Prussian Confederation, made up of representatives of the Prussian estates, sought to break away from the Teutonic Order and join Poland, leading to the outbreak of the Thirteen Years' War.[4][5] It was settled by the Second Peace of Thorn, under which Poland acquired most of the region and thenceforth formed Royal Prussia. It consisted of Pomerelia and Chełmno Land, expanded by the addition of parts of the formerly Old Prussian territories of Pomesania, Pogesania and Warmia. The region initially had a degree of autonomy with its own local legislature called the Prussian Estates, and it maintained its own laws, customs and rights. Royal Prussia was ultimately re-absorbed into the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland following the Union of Lublin in 1569.[6]

The locally spoken language differed among social classes. The aristocracy and urban burghers were initially highly Germanised as a result of earlier Teutonic policies, but they were gradually Polonised in the later years. The peasantry continued to speak predominantly Kashubian and Polish.[7]

East Prussia around Königsberg remained part of the State of the Teutonic Order, which was reduced to a vassal state of the Polish kings.[8] Its territory was secularised to become the Lutheran Duchy of Prussia under the 1525 Treaty of Kraków and the Prussian Homage.[9] Beginning in 1618, the duchy was ruled in personal union with the Imperial Margraviate of Brandenburg. The Hohenzollern rulers of Brandenburg-Prussia were able to remove Polish suzerainty in the 1657 Treaty of Wehlau. In 1701, under Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, the duchy was elevated to the Kingdom of Prussia.[10]

Establishment

[edit]
West Prussia following the First Partition of Poland. It is the lighter shaded part of the Kingdom of Prussia along the Baltic coastline.

In 1772 the Prussian king Frederick II (Frederick the Great) arranged for the Russian Empire to annex the eastern part of the weak and divided Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and for Prussia to take most of Royal Prussia. The resulting First Partition of Poland gave Prussia a land connection between the Province of Pomerania and East Prussia, cutting off Polish access to the Baltic Sea. The annexed provinces of Pomerania (Pomerelia), excluding Danzig, plus Malbork (Marienburg) and Chełmno (Culm), excluding the city of Toruń (Thorn), were incorporated into the new Province of West Prussia the following year, as was the formerly East Prussian Marienwerder Kreis. Warmia (Ermland) became part of East Prussia, while the annexed parts of Greater Poland and Kuyavia formed a separate Netze District located to the south.[11][12][13] German-speaking Protestants made up 54% of the annexed area and 75% of the urban population.[14]

The Partition Sejm, a puppet legislature created for the purpose, ratified the cession on 30 September 1773, and at the same time the Polish king renounced his title to Prussia. Thereafter, Frederick held the title "King of Prussia" rather than "King in Prussia", which had been the case when West Prussia was part of Poland.[15]

Danzig and Thorn became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in the Second Partition of Poland in 1793.[12]

Following the partitions, Prussian systems replaced the Polish administrative and legal code in West Prussia.[16] From 1772 to 1775, 750 schools were built in the province. Teachers and administrators, who were both Protestant and Roman Catholic, were encouraged to be able to speak both German and Polish. Frederick II advised his successors to learn Polish, a policy followed by the Hohenzollern dynasty until Frederick III (r. 1888) decided not to have his son William II (r. 1888–1914) learn the language.[17] Despite his encouragement of bilingualism, Frederick II had little but contempt for the Polish nobility (szlachta), and wrote that Poland had "the worst government in Europe with the exception of the Ottoman Empire".[18] In a letter to his brother Henry, Frederick said of the province that "there is a lot of work to be done; there is no order and no planning, and the towns are in a lamentable condition".[19] Frederick invited German immigrants to redevelop the province, with some 300,000 answering the call.[20]

Even though some German authors viewed the establishment of West Prussia as a historic reunification of the lands of the Teutonic State, the Prussian government officially avoided justifying the annexation with such an argument. The reason was that the Teutonic Order still called for the reestablishment of its rule over East and West Prussia.[21]

Napoleonic Wars and Congress of Vienna

[edit]

In 1806, armies of the French Empire under Napoleon defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt. In the resulting Treaties of Tilsit, West Prussia lost its southern territory around Thorn and Culm to the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw;[22] it also lost Danzig, which was a Free City from 1807 until 1814.[23] After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, Danzig, Culm and Thorn were returned to West Prussia by the Congress of Vienna. Some areas of Greater Poland annexed in 1772 that had formed the Netze District were added to West Prussia as well; the remainder became part of the Grand Duchy of Posen.[24]

The Congress of Vienna also established the German Confederation, an association of 39 German-speaking states under the nominal leadership of the Austrian Empire as a replacement for the dissolved Holy Roman Empire. With the exception of the Lauenburg and Bütow Land and the former Starostwo of Draheim,[25] the Prussian lands which had been outside the Empire (former Ducal Prussia and those territories gained during the partitions of Poland) were not part of the Confederation. They included both predominantly Polish- or Kashubian-speaking areas (former Greater Poland and Pomerelia within West Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Posen) and German-speaking areas (Malbork Land within West Prussia and most of East Prussia).[26] The Frankfurt Parliament planned to include these regions in a unified Germany during the failed German revolutions of 1848–1849.[27]

In 1815, the province was administratively subdivided into the governmental districts (Regierungsbezirke) of Danzig and Marienwerder.[28] West Prussia was joined with East Prussia in personal union under a single Oberpräsident in 1824, then in 1829 the two provinces were officially combined to form the Province of Prussia within the Kingdom of Prussia.[29]

Incorporation into Germany

[edit]

The entire Province of Prussia, including those parts that had not belonged to the German Confederation, became part of the North German Confederation in 1866 when it superseded the German Confederation. In 1878, seven years after the formation of the German Empire, East and West Prussia were separated to once again become provinces of the Kingdom of Prussia, the largest state within the new empire.[29]

With rise of nationalism, the Hohenzollern-ruled Kingdom of Prussia increasingly became a target of aggressive Germanisation efforts, German settlement, anti-Catholic campaigns (the Kulturkampf), as well as disfranchisement and expropriations of Poles.[citation needed] Germany "systematically Germanicised 'eastern' place names and public signs, fostered German cultural imperialism, and provided financial and other inducements for German farmers, officials, clergy, and teachers to settle and work in the east. After [Chancellor Otto von] Bismarck's fall in 1890, Kaiser Wilhelm II actively encouraged all this."[30]

Historian Andrzej Chwalba cites additional Germanisation measures that included:[31]

  • Ethnic Germans were favoured in government contracts, winning them over Poles.
  • Ethnic Germans were promoted in investment plans and supply contracts.
  • German craftsmen in Polish territories received the best locations in cities from the authorities so that they could start their own businesses and prosper.
  • Under the threat of arrest, soldiers received orders that banned them from buying in Polish shops and from Poles.
  • German merchants were encouraged to settle in Polish territories.
  • Tax incentives and beneficial financial arrangements were proposed to German officials and clerks if they would settle in Polish-inhabited provinces.

In the German census of 1910, the population of West Prussia was set at 1,703,474, of whom 64.5% were German and the remainder (35.5%) Polish. Polish author Stanislas Kozicki wrote in 1918 that the true share of Poles may have been 42.5% because "a number of Polish Catholics have been inscribed as German".[32] The numbers included German military personnel stationed in the region as well as civil clerks and officials who were settled as part of the German state's official policy of Germanisation of Polish areas.[31]

Dissolution

[edit]

After Germany's defeat in World War I, Polish patriots rose up to restore an independent Polish state. Fighting between the Polish insurgents and German troops in the Greater Poland uprising ended in February 1919 with the Poles in control of much of the territory that the country had lost in the Partitions of Poland.[33][34] The 1919 Treaty of Versailles, recognizing the results of the uprising, established the Second Polish Republic and the Free City of Danzig. They included most of pre-war West Prussia's territory (62% to Poland and 8% to Danzig) and population (57% and 19% respectively). Parts of the former province remained in Weimar Germany: in the west, 18% of the territory and 9% of the population, and in the east 12% of the territory and 15% of the population.[35] The western remainder became the Prussian province of Posen–West Prussia in 1922, while the eastern area became part of the Region of West Prussia within the Province of East Prussia. The Province of West Prussia itself ceased to exist.[36]

The 1920 East Prussian plebiscite, a vote mandated by the Treaty of Versailles to allow certain mixed Polish and German areas of Prussia to decide whether to become part of Poland or to remain in Germany, included the eastern part of West Prussia, referred to as the Marienwerder Plebiscite Area. It included, partially or fully, the districts of Marienwerder, Stuhm, Rosenberg and Marienburg. The residents of the region voted by a majority of 92.4% to remain with Germany.[37]

Division of the province between Poland, Weimar Germany and the Free City of Danzig after World War I
West Prussia Area in 1910 in km2 Share of territory Population in 1910 After WW1 part of: Notes
Given to: 25,580 km2 [38] 100% 1,703,474 Divided between:
Poland 15,900 km2 [38] 62% [39] 57% [39] Pomeranian Voivodeship [Note 1]
Free City Danzig 1,966 km2 8% 19% Free City of Danzig
Germany 2,927 km2 11% 15% East Prussia [Note 2]
4,787 km2 19% 9% Posen-West Prussia[40] [Note 3]

World War II

[edit]

Following Nazi Germany's 1939 invasion of Poland, the region which had been the Province of West Prussia became part of the Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. Some 130,000 Germans were settled in the region,[41] while between 120,000 and 170,000 Poles and Jews were removed through expulsion or enslavement, or were killed in extermination camps or massacred.[42] As in all other Nazi-occupied areas, Poles and Jews were classified as Untermenschen by the German state, with the fate of many being slavery and extermination, the latter in particular during Intelligenzaktion Pommern massacres and in the Stutthof concentration camp.[citation needed]

Late in the war, many West Prussian Germans fled westward as the Red Army advanced. All of the areas occupied by Nazis were restored to Poland according to the post-war Potsdam Agreement in 1945, along with additional neighbouring areas of former Nazi Germany and areas that had been part of Germany before the war. The vast majority of the remaining German population of the region that had not fled was subsequently expelled westward. Many German civilians were deported to labuor camps like Vorkuta in the Soviet Union, where a large number of them perished or were later reported missing.[citation needed] In 1949, the refugees established the non-profit Landsmannschaft Westpreussen to represent West Prussians in the Federal Republic of Germany.[43]

Historical population

[edit]
Mother Tongues of West Prussia, according to the 1910 Census

Perhaps the earliest estimations on ethnic or national structure of West Prussia are from 1819. At that time, West Prussia had 630,077 inhabitants, including 327,300 Poles (52%), 290,000 Germans (46%) and 12,700 Jews (2%).[44]

Ethnic structure of West Prussia in 1819[44]
Ethnic group Population
Number Percentage
Poles 327,300 52%
Germans 290,000 46%
Jews 12,700 2%
Total 630,077 100%

in 1831 geographer Karl Andree gave the total population of West Prussia as 700,000 – including 50% Poles (350,000), 47% Germans (330,000) and 3% Jews (20,000).[45]

The population more than doubled during the next seven decades, reaching 1,433,681 inhabitants (including 1,976 foreigners) in 1890.

  • 1875 – 1,343,057
  • 1880 – 1,405,898
  • 1890 – 1,433,681 (717,532 Catholics, 681,195 Protestants, 21,750 Jews, other)
  • 1900 – 1,563,658 (800,395 Catholics, 730,685 Protestants, 18,226 Jews, other)
  • 1905 – 1,641,936
  • 1910 – 1,703,474 (according to German statistics, there were 35.5% Poles, while according to Polish statisticians the percentage of Poles was 42.5%)[32]

According to the German census of 1910, in areas that became Polish after 1918, 42% of the populace was German (including German military, officials and colonists), while the Polish census of 1921 found 19% of Germans in the same territory.[citation needed]

Contemporary sources in the late 19th and early 20th centuries gave the number of Kashubians between 80,000 and 200,000.[citation needed]

Subdivisions

[edit]
Districts of West Prussia (1910)
Administrative divisions and languages in West Prussia according to the German census of 1910.
Legend for the districts:
  German
  Polish
  Kashubian
  other or bilingual

Note: Prussian provinces were subdivided into districts called Kreise. Cities would have their own Stadtkreis (urban district) and the surrounding rural area would be named for the city, but referred to as a Landkreis (rural district).

Ethnolinguistic structure of West Prussia by district (1910) [46][page needed]
District (Kreis) Regierungsbezirk Polish name Population German % Polish / Kashubian / Bilingual %
Berent Danzig Powiat kościerski 55,976 23,682 42.3% 32,287 57.7%
Danziger Höhe Powiat Gdańskie Wyżyny 53,506 47,397 88.6% 6,071 11.3%
Danziger Niederung 36,345 36,008 99.1% 327 0.9%
Stadtkreis Danzig Powiat grodzki Gdańsk 170,337 164,343 96.5% 5,521 3.2%
Dirschau Powiat tczewski 42,723 27,865 65.2% 14,846 34.7%
Landkreis Elbing Powiat elbląski 38,611 38,558 99.9% 48 0.1%
Stadtkreis Elbing Powiat grodzki Elbląg 58,636 58,330 99.5% 248 0.4%
Karthaus Powiat kartuski 69,891 19,319 27.6% 50,568 72.4%
Marienburg Powiat malborski 62,999 61,050 96.9% 1,924 3.1%
Neustadt Powiat wejherowski 61,620 30,932 50.2% 30,661 49.8%
Preußisch Stargard Powiat starogardzki 65,427 17,165 26.2% 48,250 73.7%
Putzig Powiat pucki 26,548 7,970 30% 18,561 69.9%
Total (Danzig) Danzig Rejencja gdańska łącznie 742,619 532,619 71.7% 209,312 28.2%
Briesen Marienwerder Powiat wąbrzeski 49,506 24,007 48.5% 25,487 51.5%
Culm Powiat chełmiński 50,069 23,345 46.6% 26,709 53.3%
Deutsch Krone Powiat wałecki 62,182 61,143 98.3% 1,022 1.6%
Flatow Powiat złotowski 69,186 50,648 73.2% 18,531 26.8%
Landkreis Graudenz Powiat grudziądzki 48,818 28,755 58.9% 20,046 41.1%
Stadtkreis Graudenz Powiat grodzki Grudziądz 40,325 34,193 84.8% 6,076 15.1%
Konitz Powiat chojnicki 63,723 28,032 44% 35,670 56%
Löbau Powiat lubawski 59,037 12,119 20.5% 46,911 79.5%
Marienwerder Powiat kwidzyński 68,426 42,465 62.1% 25,944 37.9%
Rosenberg Powiat suski 54,550 50,194 92% 4,321 7.9%
Schlochau Powiat człuchowski 67,157 56,648 84.4% 10,488 15.6%
Schwetz Powiat świecki 89,712 42,233 47.1% 47,465 52.9%
Strasburg Powiat brodnicki 62,142 21,097 33.9% 41,026 66%
Stuhm Powiat sztumski 36,527 20,923 57.3% 15,583 42.7%
Landkreis Thorn Powiat toruński 59,317 27,751 46.8% 31,493 53.1%
Stadtkreis Thorn Powiat grodzki Toruń 46,227 30,505 66% 15,576 33.7%
Tuchel Powiat tucholski 33,951 11,265 33.2% 22,656 66.7%
Total (Marienwerder) Marienwerder Rejencja kwidzyńska łącznie 960,855 565,323 58.8% 395,004 41.1%
Total (West Prussia) - - 1,703,474 1,097,942 64.5% 604,316 35.5%

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Poland received several cities and counties of West Prussia located east of the Vistula: Lubawa, Brodnica, Wąbrzeźno, Toruń, Chełmno, Grudziądz; as well as most of cities and counties of West Prussia located west of it: Świecie, Tuchola, Starogard Gdański, Kwidzyn (only part west of the Vistula), most of county Tczew, eastern part of county Złotów, part of county Człuchów, as well as counties Chojnice, Kościerzyna, Kartuzy, coastal Wejherowo and Puck with Gdynia; as well as a small western part of Danziger Höhe and areas around Janowo east of the Vistula.
  2. ↑ Parts of West Prussia east of the Nogat and the Vistula Rivers, which remained in Germany after 1918, including the city and county of Elbląg and counties Malbork (part east of Nogat), Sztum, Kwidzyn (only the part east of the Vistula) and Susz, were incorporated to East Prussia as the Regency of West Prussia. The area of historical Pomesania had significant Polish minority.
  3. ↑ Western part of West Prussia with county Wałcz and parts of counties Złotów and Człuchów (the latter two split between Poland and Germany). This area included 12 towns and cities: Człuchów, Debrzno, Biały Bór, Czarne, Lędyczek, Złotów, Krajenka, Wałcz, Mirosławiec, Człopa, Tuczno and Jastrowie. The area was home to significant Polish minority.

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Urban, William; Baronas, Darius (2024). "The Pomerellian Crisis of 1308–11". The Teutonic Knights Strike East. Barnseley, UK: Greenhill Books. pp. (ebook). ISBN 978-1-805-00055-6.
  2. ↑ Loew, Peter Oliver (2010). Danzig. Biographie einer Stadt [Danzig. Biography of a City] (in German). Munich: C.H.Beck. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-3-406-60587-1.
  3. ↑ Karras, Ruth Mazo (2006). "Knighthood, Compulsory Heterosexuality, and Sodomy". In Kuefler, Mathew (ed.). The Boswell Thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 280. ISBN 0-226-45740-0.
  4. ↑ "Thirteen Years' War". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 June 2026.
  5. ↑ Lückerath, Carl August. "Gründung des Eidechsenbundes in Preussen" [Founding of the Lizard Union]. Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen (in German). Retrieved 29 June 2026.
  6. ↑ Mallek, Janusz (1994). "Königlich-Preußen / Polnisch-Preußen – eine autonome Region 1466–1569" [Royal Prussia / Polish Prussia – an autonomous region, 1466–1569]. In Hartmann, Peter Claus (ed.). Regionen in der Frühen Neuzeit [Regions in the Early Modern Period] (in German). Vol. 17. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot. pp. 184–185, 188. ISBN 978-3-428-48078-4. JSTOR jj.16834365.12.
  7. ↑ Miller, Jaroslav (2008). Urban Societies in East-Central Europe, 1500–1700. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-7546-5739-2.
  8. ↑ Rhode, Gotthold K.S. "Casimir IV". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 June 2026.
  9. ↑ Thomas, Andrew L. (2022). The Apocalypse in Reformation Nuremberg. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-472-22062-5.
  10. ↑ Gilman, Daniel Coit; Peck, Henry Thurston; Colby, Frank Moore, eds. (1903). The New International Encyclopædia. Vol. 14. New York: Dodd, Mead. p. 613.
  11. ↑ "Partitions of Poland". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 1 July 2026.
  12. 1 2 "Westpreussen" [West Prussia]. Preussen (in German). Retrieved 1 July 2026.
  13. ↑ "Zur Geschichte der Region an der unteren Weichsel" [On the History of the Region on the Lower Vistula]. Westpreussische Gesellschaft (in German). Retrieved 1 July 2026.
  14. ↑ Clark, Christopher M. (2006). Iron Kingdom: the Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-674-02385-7.
  15. ↑ Hayes, Carlton J. H. (1921). A Political and Social History of Modern Europe. Vol. 1. New York: MacMillan. p. 350, fn. 1.
  16. ↑ Koch, H. W. (1978). A History of Prussia. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 326. ISBN 0-88029-158-3.
  17. ↑ Koch 1978, p. 136.
  18. ↑ Ritter, p. 192
  19. ↑ MacDonogh, p. 363
  20. ↑ Surdykowski, Jerzy (2001). Duch Rzeczypospolitej [The Spirit of the Republic] (in Polish). Warsaw: PWN Scientific Publishing House. p. 153.
  21. ↑ Labuda, Gerard (1983). "Die Revision der Geschichte Preußens – Errungenschaften und Forschungspläne" [Rethinking the History of Prussia – Achievements and Research Plans]. In Dralle, Lothar (ed.). Preußen, Deutschland, Polen im Urteil polnischer Historiker [Prussia, Germany, Poland in the Judgment of Polish Historians] (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin: Colloquium Verlag. p. 159.
  22. ↑ Piltz, Erasmus, ed. (1909). Poland, Her People, History, Industries, Science, Literature, Art, and Social Development. London: Herbert Jenkins. p. 19.
  23. ↑ Mark, Harrison W. (26 July 2023). "Treaties of Tilsit". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2 July 2026.
  24. ↑ Tymieniecki, Kazimierz (1929). History of Polish Pomerania. Poznan: Society of Lovers of History. p. 122.
  25. ↑ von Lancizolle, Carl Wilhelm (1830). Uebersicht der deutschen Reichsstandschafts- und Territorial-Verhältnisse [Overview of the German Imperial Estates and Territorial Arrangements] (in Swahili). Berlin: F. Dümmler. p. 134.
  26. ↑ Winkler, Heinrich August (2006). The Long Road West. Vol. 1. Translated by Sager, Alexander J. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 135.
  27. ↑ Winkler 2006, p. 192.
  28. ↑ Jahrbuch für die amtliche Statistik des preussischen Staats [Yearbook of Official Statistics of the Prussian State] (in German). Berlin: R. Decker. 1863. p. 28.
  29. 1 2 Gornig, Gilbert (2003). "Wiederbegründung der Provinzen West- und Ostpreussen" [Reestablishment of the Provinces of West and East Prussia]. Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen (in German). Retrieved 26 May 2026.
  30. ↑ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Wastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Milton Park, UK: Routledge. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-415-16111-4.
  31. 1 2 Chwalba, Andrzej (2000). Historia Polski 1795–1918 [History of Poland 1795–1918] (in Polish). Krakow: Literackie. pp. 461–463. ISBN 978-8-308-03053-0.
  32. 1 2 Kozicki, Stanislas (1918). The Poles under Prussian Rule. London: Polish Press Bureau. p. 4.
  33. ↑ "The Wielkopolska Uprising 1918-1919". Region Wielkopolska. Retrieved 6 July 2026.
  34. ↑ Karwat, Janusz. "Der Großpolenaufstand 1918–1919. Einige Beobachtungen aus der 100 Jahre Sicht" [The Greater Polish Uprising of 1918–1919: Some Observations from a 100-Year Perspective]. Powstancy Wielkopolscy (in German). Retrieved 6 July 2026.
  35. ↑ Nadobnik, Marcin (1921). "Obszar i ludność b. dzielnicy pruskiej" [Area and population of the former Prussian territory]. AMUR - Adam Mickiewicz University Repository (in Polish). Retrieved 5 July 2026.
  36. ↑ Porada, Haik Thomas (4 October 2021). "Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen" [Frontier March of Posen–West Prussia]. Online-Lexikon zur Kultur und Geschichte der Deutschen im östlichen Europa (in German). Retrieved 6 July 2026.
  37. ↑ "Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, The Paris Peace Conference, 1919, Volume XIII Section IX.—East Prussia (Art. 94 to 98)". United States Department of State Office of the Historian. Retrieved 6 July 2026.
  38. 1 2 Weinfeld, Ignacy (1925). Tablice statystyczne Polski: wydanie za rok 1924 [Poland's statistical tables: edition for year 1924] (in Polish). Warsaw: Instytut Wydawniczy "Bibljoteka Polska". p. 2. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
  39. 1 2 Nadobnik, Marcin (1921). "Obszar i ludność b. dzielnicy pruskiej" [Area and population of former Prussian district]. Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny (in Polish). 1 (3). Poznań – via AMUR - Adam Mickiewicz University Repository.
  40. ↑ "Die Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen. Übersichtskarte" [The Frontier Region Posen-West Prussia. Overview Map]. gonschior.de (in German). Retrieved 6 July 2026.
  41. ↑ Chrzanowski, Bogdan (May 2004). "Wypędzenia z Pomorza" [Expulsions from Pomerania]. Biuletyn IPN (in Polish). 5: 34 ff.
  42. ↑ Gąsiorowski, Andrzej. "Relocations from the western lands". Association of Displaced Gdynia Residents. Retrieved 7 July 2026.
  43. ↑ von Witzleben, Erik (1951). "Die Landsmannschaft Westpreussen" [The Territorial Association of West Prussia]. Die ostdeutschen Landsmannschaften [The East German Territorial Associations] (in German). Göttingen: Der Göttinger Arbeitskreis. pp. 11–12.
  44. 1 2 Hassel, Georg (1823). Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten [A Statistical Overview of All European Countries and the Most Prominent Non-European Countries] (in German). Weimar: Verlag des Geographischen Instituts. p. 42.
  45. ↑ Andree, Karl (1831). Polen in geographischer, geschichtlicher und culturhistorischer Hinsicht [Poland from a Geographical, Historical, and Cultural-Historical Perspective] (in German). Leipzig: Verlag von Ludwig Schumann. p. 212.
  46. ↑ Belzyt, Leszek (1998). Sprachliche Minderheiten im preußischen Staat: 1815–1914 [Linguistic Minorities in the Prussian State: 1815–1914] (in German). Marburg: Herder-Inst. ISBN 978-3-87969-267-5.

Further reading

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