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// Workers AI · dad joke modeAre Myanmar's divisions well-organized? They're state-ly arranged.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Subdivisions of Myanmar)

Administrative divisions of Myanmar
CategoryUnitary state
LocationRepublic of the Union of Myanmar
Number7 regions
7 states
1 union territory (as of 2024)
Populations286,627 (Kayah State) - 7,360,703 (Yangon Region)
Areas7,054 km2 (2,724 sq mi) (Naypyidaw Union Territory) - 155,801 km2 (60,155 sq mi) (Shan State)
Government
Subdivisions

According to the 2008 Constitution, the Republic of the Union of Myanmar constitutes seven regions, seven states and one union territory.[1][2] The constitution also mentions one self-administered division and five self-administered zones which are parts of some of the states and regions.[1][2] In addition to these constitutional administrative subdivisions, there are also special regions which are extraconstitutional autonomous territories controlled by ethnic armed groups and recognized by the central government after the cease-fire agreements of 1989 and 1990s.[3][4]

Structural hierarchy

[edit]
  Hierarchy according to the Article 51 of the 2008 Constitution[1]
  Not mentioned in the constitution but recognized by laws and regulations
Union level
The Republic of the Union
နိုင်ငံတော်
First level
Union Territory
ပြည်ထောင်စုနယ်မြေ		 State
ပြည်နယ်		 Region
တိုင်းဒေသကြီး
Second level
District
ခရိုင်		 City
မြို့တော်		 Special Region
အထူးဒေသ		 Self-Administered Division
ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရတိုင်း		 Self-Administered Zone
ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ
District
ခရိုင်
Third level
Township
မြို့နယ်		 Township
မြို့နယ်
Subtownship
မြို့နယ်ခွဲ
Local level
Ward
ရပ်ကွက်		 Village Tract
ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု		 Town
မြို့
Village
ရွာ		 Ward
ရပ်ကွက်

The regions were called divisions prior to August 2010,[5][2] and four of them are named after their capital city, the exceptions being Sagaing Region, Ayeyarwady Region and Tanintharyi Region. The regions can be described as ethnically predominantly Burman (Bamar), while the states are dominated by ethnic minorities.

Regions and states are made up of districts, as well as self-administered zones and self-administered divisions if they exist.[1] The self-administered divisions are also constituted by districts. The districts and the self-administered zones consist of townships that include towns, wards and village tracts. Village tracts are groups of adjacent villages.

Yangon Region has the largest population and is the most densely populated. The smallest population is Kayah State. In terms of land area, Shan State is the largest and Naypyidaw Union Territory is the smallest.

The self-administered division (SAD) exists at an administrative level half-a-step below that of states, regions and the union territory, and the self-administrative zones (SAZ) exists at the district level.[6] Nevertheless, the constitution stated that both SAD and SAZs are of equal status.[1] The self-administered areas were formed by statutes on territory controlled by Myanmar's ethnic armed organisations.[7]

Within the hierarchy, the most significant unit of local governance below the first level is the township which form the a consistent set of administrative units across the country. Often, local governance will go directly from the township to the ward. Most of the country do not have separate town offices. For example, in 2015, only 7 of the 27 townships of Ayeyarwady Region had a town office at all.[8]

According to the constitution,[1] townships are made up of wards, towns and village tracts. Village tracts are made up of villages and towns include wards. In some areas, wards directly constitute townships without a town and the constitution also acknowledge them.

Additionally, some townships are divided into Subtownships (မြို့နယ်ခွဲ), which are semi-official parts of a township administered separately, often revolving around a town separate from the township's principal town. Many reports will use subtownships, especially more established subtownships used by the main townships themselves.[9]

The extraconstitutional cities of Yangon, Mandalay and Nay Pyi Taw are defined by development laws. The power to determine and expand the boundaries of each city lies in its city development committee. The territory of each city contains multiple districts. In the cities of Yangon and Mandalay, township development committees acts as subordinates of the city development committee, without a committee for the district level.[10][11] From 2013 to 2018, there were district development committees between Yangon City Development Committee and township development committees.[12]

System of administration

[edit]
  States of Myanmar
  Regions of Myanmar
  Union Territory of Myanmar

The administrative structure of the states, regions and self-administering bodies is outlined in the new constitution adopted in 2008.[1]

Regions, States and Union Territories

[edit]
Flag NameBurmeseCapital ISO Region Pop.
(2024)[13]		 Area
(km2)		 Density
(per km2)
Ayeyarwady Region ဧရာဝတီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Pathein MM-07 Lower 5,546,415 35,031.9 158.3
Bago Region ပဲခူးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Bago MM-02 Lower 4,453,687 39,404.5 113.02
Chin State ချင်းပြည်နယ် Hakha MM-14 Upper 373,023 36,018.9 10.4
Kachin State ကချင်ပြည်နယ် Myitkyina MM-11 Upper 2,153,483 89,041.9 24.2
Kayah State ကယားပြည်နယ် Loikaw MM-12 Upper 296,901 11,731.5 25.3
Kayin State ကရင်ပြည်နယ် Hpa-an MM-13 Lower 1,502,774 30,382.8 49.5
Magway Region မကွေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Magwe MM-03 Upper 4,077,653 44,820.6 91.0
Mandalay Region မန္တလေးတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Mandalay MM-04 Upper 6,323,554 30,888.1 204.7
Mon State မွန်ပြည်နယ် Mawlamyine MM-15 Lower 2,054,393 12,296.6 149.0
Nay Pyi Taw Union Territory နေပြည်တော် ပြည်ထောင်စုနယ်မြေ Nay Pyi Taw MM-18 Upper 1,129,322 7,057.1 160.0
Rakhine State ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ် Sittwe MM-16 Lower 2,526,792 36,778.1 68.7
Sagaing Region စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Monywa MM-01 Upper 5,977,292 93,702.5 63.8
Shan State ရှမ်းပြည်နယ် Taunggyi MM-17 Upper 6,412,501 155,801.5 41.2
Tanintharyi Region တနင်္သာရီတိုင်းဒေသကြီး Dawei MM-05 Lower 1,399,965 43,344.9 32.3
Yangon Region ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီး Yangon MM-06 Lower 7,369,989 10,276.7 717.2

Executive authority is held in each state or region by a Regional or State Government consisting of a Chief Minister, other ministers and an Advocate General.[1] The President appoints the Chief Minister from a list of qualified candidates in the regional or state legislature; the legislature must approve this choice unless it is proven that the candidate does not meet constitutional qualifications.[1] Since 4 March 2026, the Region or State minister responsible for development affairs is appointed as the mayor for the capital of the respective Region or State.[14]

Legislative authority resides with the State Hluttaw or Region Hluttaw made up of elected civilian members and representatives of the Defence Services (Tatmadaw military). Both divisions are considered equivalent, the only distinction being that states have large ethnic minority populations and regions are mostly populated by the national majority Burmans / Bamar.[15]

Nay Pyi Taw Union Territory

[edit]

The constitution states that Nay Pyi Taw shall be a Union Territory under the direct administration of the President. Day-to-day functions would be carried out on the President's behalf by the Nay Pyi Taw Council led by a Chairperson. The Chairperson and members of the Nay Pyi Taw Council are appointed by the President, and membership includes civilians and representatives of the Defence Services (Tatmadaw military).

Self-Administered Division and Self-Administered Zones

[edit]
Self-Administered Division and Self-Administered Zones

Self-Administered Division and Self-Administered Zones are subdivisions of some of the states and regions. The self-administered division is above the district level while self-administered zones are equivalent to the administrative level of districts. Each of them is administered by a Leading Body consisting of at least ten members and includes State or Regional Hluttaw members elected from the Zones or Divisions and other members nominated by the Defence Services (Tatmadaw military). The Leading Body has both executive and legislative powers. A Chairperson is head of each Leading Body.

Self-Administered Division
No. Flag English nameBurmese nameCapital Districts Townships Population
Within Shan State:
1. Wa Self-Administered Division ဝကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရတိုင်း
  • Hopang
    (de facto: 2010–2024)
    (de jure: 2010–2025)[16]
  • Metman
    (de facto: 2024–present)
    (de jure: 2025–present)[16]
 Hopang Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, 558,000
Metman Nahpan, Metman, Pangsang (Pankham)
Self-Administered Zones
No. Flag English nameBurmese nameCapital Townships Population
Within Sagaing Region:
1. Naga Self-Administered Zone နာဂကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ Lahe Leshi, Lehe, Namyun 116,828
Within Shan State:
2. Danu Self-Administered Zone ဓနုကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ Pindaya Ywangan, Pindaya 161,835
3. Kokang Self-Administered Zone ကိုးကန့်ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ Laukkai Konkyan, Laukkai 123,733
4. Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone ပလောင်ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ Namhsan Namhsan, Manton 110,805
5. Pa'O Self-Administered Zone ပအိုဝ်းကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ Hopong Hopong, Hshihseng, Pinlaung 380,427

Special Regions

[edit]

Special Regions refer to areas not under the direct control of the central government but co-administered by some (not all) of the ethnic armed organisations under ceasefire agreements.[17] The status of Special Region was first given to the splinter groups emerged from the collapse of the Communist Party of Burma in 1989[18][19][3] and later given also to some other groups through the 1990s under the SLORC/SPDC military government.[20][4][21]

The special regions in Shan State are often further distinguished by cardinal direction, such as Eastern Shan State Special Region 4 or Wa Special Region 2.

Districts and Townships

[edit]
Districts of Myanmar as of 2022

Districts are generally the second-order divisions of Myanmar and are often named after a population center within the district of the same name. Shan State has the highest numbers of normal districts; it also has plus Self-Administered Zones and the districts under the Self-Administered Division. Nay Pyi Taw Union Territory, Tanintharyi and Mon State have the least with just 4 districts.[30] The District's role is more supervisory as the 330 townships are the basic administrative unit of local governance and are the only type of administrative division that covers the entirety of Myanmar. Historically, districts were abolished in 1972 and reestablished in 1992; townships were directly under states and divisions in 1972–1988 and township zones acted as districts in 1988–1992.[31][32] A District is led by a District Administrator and a Township is administered by a Township Administrator. Both are appointed civil servants through the General Administration Department (GAD) of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA). The Minister of Home Affairs is to be appointed by the military according to the 2008 constitution.[33] The 2008 Constitution of Myanmar defined 75 districts. In April 2022, 46 additional districts were formed by MOHA bringing the total up to 121 districts.[34]

Most local governance services are offered at the Township level; few services are offered at the District level. The Township Administrator is the key focal point for most interactions with the government and the Township Administrator serves as a representative of the State or Region government and executes functions on behalf of the State or Region.[33] All Township governments are staffed by 34 GAD civil servants regardless of population, although larger townships may have several Township committees that coordinate with the Township and report to the District.[8] Townships historically were the second-order subdivisions[35] during the period between the abolishment of districts and subdistricts in 1972 and the establishment of township zones in 1988.[31][32]

In some cases, the rural portions of the township centred on a different town may be administered semi-independently as sub-townships.[36] Subtownships exist for many but not all townships. They can be created for many reasons including, townships with large areas, townships with a large natural barrier or townships with a lopsided population distribution. These subtownships are not mentioned in the 2008 Constitution but has officially been existing in the General Administration Department's structure since 2011.[37] Subtownships are useful to the Township administration and national ministries for data collection and administrative ease.

Cities and Development Committees

[edit]

The definition of a city or a town is ambiguous with the Burmese term မြို့ ("myo") being translated as any urban area. The term မြို့တော် ("myodaw"; royal myo) is used for a city to distinguish from a mere town. The General Administration Department explicitly defines only the three cities of Yangon, Mandalay and Nay Pyi Taw.[38] Municipal governance is the key exception to the general administrative structure of Myanmar with township development committees raising their own revenue and conducting their own services and economic initiatives. Still, the legislative and executive power is held by the State or Region over these development committees.[39]

According to the development law of Yangon Region and development organizations laws of other states and regions, the municipality is functionally administered by the development committees at state/region level and by development organizations at township level, town level and countryside level, apart from the boundaries of the cities of Yangon and Mandalay which are exempted.[40][41][42] In the City of Yangon and the City of Mandalay, township development committees act as subordinates of the city development committee according to the development laws of each city.[10][11]

In Yangon, the administrative jurisdiction of the Yangon City Development Committee overlap across 34 townships.[43][44] The boundaries of the City of Yangon was defined by law in 1922 but allowed to expand.[45] The development laws handed the Yangon City Development Committee the authority to determine and expand the city's boundaries.[10] By the development laws, the relationship is between township development committees and the city development committee.[10] The city of Yangon overlapped with all four pre-2022 districts of Yangon.[43]

The city of Mandalay is slightly more defined than Yangon. While acknowledging the existing boundaries, its development law handed its city development committee the authority to declare and change the city's boundaries, in a similar way as in Yangon.[11] Prior to the expansion of districts in 2022, the city of Mandalay was functionally administered at the Mandalay District level with townships acting as subdivisions of a city.

Towns / Village Tracts and Wards / Villages

[edit]

Other settlements colloquially called "cities" are considered towns in Myanmar. All towns are contained within one township like Pathein.

The lowest level of practical administration is the ward for urban areas and village for rural areas. Villages are grouped into and administered as village tracts.[6] Village Tracts may contain up to 8 distinct villages.

Townships are made up of towns and village tracts as well as wards.[1] If the township is entirely urban, it is directly made of wards and there is no town. Some townships include areas not part of any ward or village tract. Most townships contain at least one town or ward, and are usually named after the population center. As of reforms in 2012 and 2013, Ward and Village Tract administrators are now typically elected, but report to the appointed Township Administrator. Ward Administrators and Village Tract Administrators (also called just Village Administrators) are supported by 100-household-heads and 10-household-heads who are collectively called area leaders.[8]

History

[edit]

British colonisation

[edit]

In 1900, Burma was a province of British India, and was divided into two subdivisions: Lower Burma, whose capital was Rangoon with four divisions (Arakan, Irrawaddy, Pegu, Tenasserim), and Upper Burma, whose capital was Mandalay with six divisions (Meiktila, Minbu, Sagaing, North Federated Shan States and South Federated Shan States).

On 10 October 1922, the Karenni States of Bawlake, Kantarawaddy, and Kyebogyi became a part of the Federated Shan States. In 1940, Minbu division's name was changed to Magwe, and Meiktila Divisions became part of Mandalay District.

Post-independence

[edit]

Upon independence,[46] on 4 January 1948, the Chin Hills area was split from Arakan Division to form Chin Special Division, and Kachin State was formed by carving out the Myitkyina and Bhamo districts of Mandalay Division. Kaw-thu-lay Special Region, which was intended to evolve into Karen State, was also created from Amherst, Thaton, and Toungoo Districts of Tenasserim Division. Mongpai State of the Federated Shan States was separated to form Karenni State, and Shan State was formed by merging the other Federated Shan States and the Wa States.

In 1952, Karenni State was renamed as Kayah State.[47] Preparing since 1951, Karen State was officially founded in 1954.[48]

In 1964, Rangoon Division was separated from Pegu Division,[31] whose capital shifted to Pegu. In addition, Karen State was renamed as Kawthoolei.[48]

In 1972, the Hanthawaddy and Hmawbi districts were moved under Rangoon Division's jurisdiction.[31] Tenasserim Division was divided into two separate divisions: Moulmein District and Thaton District came under the Tenasserim Division (1) with Moulmein as the capital, and Myeik District and Tavoy District constituted the Tenasserim Division (2) with Tavoy becoming its capital.[32] In the same year, districts, subdistricts and subtownships were abolished.[32][31]

The present-day structure of seven states and seven divisions was adopted after the coming into force of the 1974 Constitution.[35][2] Chin Special Division became Chin State, and its capital moved from Falam to Hakha. The name of Kawthoolei was reverted to Karen State.[48] Tenasserim Division (1) gained statehood as Mon State, whereas Tenasserim Division (2) became the only Tenasserim Division. In addition, Arakan Division was granted statehood as Arakan State.

After the coup d'état by the State Law and Order Restoration Council military junta in 1988, the new level of township zones was introduced between the level of state and divisions and the township level.[32][31][37] In 1989, the names of many divisions in Burma were altered in English to reflect Burmese pronunciations.[49] The township zones were redefined as districts in 1992.[32][31][37] In 1994, a new level of sub-states and sub-divisions were introduced between the level of states and divisions and the district level.[37]

From 1989 onward, the military government granted the status of special regions to the territories controlled by some (not all) of the ethnic armed groups which entered into cease-fire agreement with the government. After 1995, in Kachin State Mohnyin District was created out of Myitkyina District as part of the peace agreement with the Kachin Independence Army.

2008 Constitution

[edit]

The 2008 Constitution stipulates the renaming of the 7 "divisions" (တိုင်း in Burmese) as "regions" (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး in Burmese). It also stipulates the creation of Union territory which includes the capital Nay Pyi Taw with the same level as the states and regions, and the ethnic self-administered zones (ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ in Burmese) and self-administered divisions (ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရတိုင်း in Burmese) which are the subdivisions of states and regions.[1] These self-administered regions include the following:

On 20 August 2010, the renaming of the 7 divisions and the naming of the 6 self-administered zones was announced by Burmese state media.[5]

Evolution and changes in hierarchy

[edit]
  Changes

Historical evolution of states/regions

[edit]

Below is a summary of how Myanmar's first-level administrative divisions have evolved since independence:

1948–1952 1952–1954 1954–1964 1964–1972 1972–1974 1974–1989 1989–2011 2011–present
[46][50][51][2][52] [47] [48] [31][48] [32] [35][2][48] [53] [1][37]
Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State Kachin State
Shan State Shan State Shan State Shan State Shan State Shan State Shan State Shan State
Karenni State Kayah State Kayah State Kayah State Kayah State Kayah State Kayah State Kayah State
Arakan Division Arakan Division Arakan Division Arakan Division Arakan Division Arakan State Rakhine State Rakhine State
Chin Special Division Chin Special Division Chin Special Division Chin Special Division Chin Special Division Chin State Chin State Chin State
Kaw-thu-lay Special Region Kaw-thu-lay Special Region Karen State Kawthoolei State Kawthoolei State Karen State Kayin State Kayin State
Tenasserim Division Tenasserim Division Tenasserim Division Tenasserim Division Tenasserim Division (1) Mon State Mon State Mon State
Tenasserim Division (2) Tenasserim Division Tanintharyi Division Tanintharyi Region
Pegu Division Pegu Division Pegu Division Pegu Division Pegu Division Pegu Division Bago Division Bago Region
Rangoon Division Rangoon Division Rangoon Division Yangon Division Yangon Region
Irrawaddy Division Irrawaddy Division Irrawaddy Division Irrawaddy Division Irrawaddy Division Irrawaddy Division Ayeyarwady Division Ayeyarwady Region
Magwe Division Magwe Division Magwe Division Magwe Division Magwe Division Magwe Division Magway Division Magway Region
Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Division Sagaing Region
Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Division Mandalay Region
Nay Pyi Taw Union Territory

Historical changes in hierarchy

[edit]
1948–1954 1954–1972 1972–1974 1974–1988 1988–1989 1989–1992 1992–1994 1994–2011 2011–present
[32][31] [35][37] [37][31][32] [37][31][32] [37] [1][37]
The Union The Union The Union The State The State The State The State The State The Republic
First level First level First level First level First level First level First level First level First level
State Special Region Special Division Division State Special Division Division State Special Division Division State Division State Division State Division State Division State State Division Division Union Territory State Region
Sub-State Sub-Division
Second level Second level Second level Second level Second level Second level Second level Second level Second level
City District City District City Township City Township City Township Zone Special Region City Township Zone Special Region City District Special Region City District District City Special Region Self-Administered Division Self-Administered Zone
District District
Subdistrict Subdistrict Township Zone Township Zone District District District
Third level Third level Township Township Third level Third level Third level Third level Third level
Township Township Township Township Township Township Township Township Township Township
Subtownship Subtownship Subtownship
Local level Local level Local level Local level Local level Local level Local level Local level
Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town Ward Village Tract Town
Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward Village Ward

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, 2008
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Jap, Jangai; Courtin, Constant (2022). Deciphering Myanmar's Ethnic Landscape: A Brief Historical and Ethnic Description of Myanmar's Administrative Units. International IDEA. doi:10.31752/idea.2022.57. ISBN 978-91-7671-577-2. Retrieved 12 May 2025.
  3. 1 2 "(၅)နှစ်အတွင်း ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသအသစ်တွေ ထပ်မံထွက်ပေါ်လာနိုင်သလား" [Is it possible for new self-administered zones to emerge in 5 years]. NP News (in Burmese). 16 June 2026. Retrieved 28 August 2026.
  4. 1 2 Kim, Jolliffe (July 2015), Ethnic Armed Conflict and Territorial Administration in Myanmar (PDF), The Asia Foundation, retrieved 31 August 2026
  5. 1 2 "တိုင်းခုနစ်တိုင်းကို တိုင်းဒေသကြီးများအဖြစ် လည်းကောင်း၊ ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ တိုင်းနှင့် ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ ဒေသများ ရုံးစိုက်ရာ မြို့များကို လည်းကောင်း ပြည်ထောင်စုနယ်မြေတွင် ခရိုင်နှင့်မြို့နယ်များကို လည်းကောင်း သတ်မှတ်ကြေညာ". Weekly Eleven News (in Burmese). 20 August 2010. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  6. 1 2 "Summary of the Myanmar P-Code version- 9.2 Mar 2020" (PDF). MIMU. Myanmar Information Management Unit. Retrieved 4 April 2025.
  7. ↑ "Asymmetrical Federalism in Myanmar: A Modern Mandala System?" (PDF). Yusof Ishak Institute. ISEAS. Retrieved 4 April 2025.
  8. 1 2 3 Arnold, Matthew; Ye Thu Aung; Kempel, Susanne; Kyi Pyar Chit Saw (July 2015). Municipal Governance in Myanmar: An Overview of Developmental Affairs Organisations (PDF) (Report). Asia Foundation.
  9. ↑ Department of Population (23 November 2017). Census Atlas Myanamr (Report). UNFPA. p. XIII.
  10. 1 2 3 4 ရန်ကုန်မြို့တော်စည်ပင်သာယာရေးဥပဒေ [Yangon City Development Law]. Yangon Region Hluttaw. 28 June 2018.
  11. 1 2 3 မန္တလေးမြို့တော်စည်ပင်သာယာရေးဥပဒေ [Mandalay City Development Law]. Mandalay Region Hluttaw. 23 December 2014.
  12. ↑ ရန်ကုန်မြို့တော်စည်ပင်သာယာရေးဥပဒေ [Yangon City Development Law]. Yangon Region Hluttaw. 8 October 2013.
  13. ↑ The 2024 Myanmar Population and Housing Census: The Union Report. The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census. Vol. 2. Nay Pyi Taw: Ministry of Immigration and Population. October 2025. p. 15.
  14. ↑ "Amendment to Region or State Government Law". Myanmar Digital News. Nay Pyi Taw: News and Periodical Enterprise, Ministry of Information. 4 March 2026. Retrieved 13 April 2026.
  15. ↑ "Myanmar's States and Regions – The Asia Foundation" (PDF). Asiafoundation.org. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  16. 1 2 Sai Khwan Murng (3 November 2025). "မက်မန်းမြို့ကို 'ဝ'ဒေသ ရုံးစိုက်ရာမြို့အဖြစ် စစ်ကော်မရှင် ပြောင်းလဲသတ်မှတ်" (in Burmese). Retrieved 31 August 2026.
  17. 1 2 "Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA)". Institute for Strategy and Policy - Myanmar. January 2024.
  18. ↑ Chao, Chung-chi (June 2026), "The Dragon on the White Elephant: Two "Chinas" Fracture Myanmar's State-Building in the Cold War", International Journal of China Studies, 17 (1), Department of Southeast Asian Studies, National Chi Nan University: 161, 162, retrieved 28 August 2026
  19. ↑ Nyan Kyal (14 August 2026). "Myanmar's Nearly 80-Year Civil War and the Meaning of "Peace"". Retrieved 28 August 2026.
  20. ↑ UNODC Global SMART programme (December 2010). Myanmar: Situation Assessment on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (PDF) (Report).
  21. ↑ မြင့်စိုး(နတလ) (20 November 2016). "ငြိမ်းချမ်းခြင်းမှသည် ဖွံ့ဖြိုးတိုးတက်ခြင်းဆီသို့ (၁)" [From Peace To Development (1)]. Ministry of Border Affairs (in Burmese). Retrieved 28 August 2026.
  22. ↑ "KIA Captures Last Kachin BGF Battalion Headquarters". BNI Online. 2 November 2024.
  23. ↑ Untold Miseries: Wartime Abuses and Forced Displacement in Burma's Kachin State. Human Rights Watch. 2012. ISBN 978-1564328748.
  24. ↑ Ong, Andrew (2023). Stalemate: Autonomy and Insurgency on the China-Myanmar Border. Cornell University Press. pp. 111–112. ISBN 978-1-5017-7071-5. JSTOR 10.7591/j.ctv2t8b78b.
  25. ↑ Shan State Progress Party (SSPP). Institute for Strategy and Policy - Myanmar (Report). 20 August 2025.
  26. ↑ "စစ်ကောင်စီလက်အောက်ခံ ကောင်းခါးပြည်သူ့စစ် KIA ထံ ဘက်ပြောင်းခိုလှုံ" [Kaung Kha People's Militia Under Military Council Defects to KIA]. Myanmar Now. 4 January 2024.
  27. ↑ Ko Oo (18 February 2025). "The Junta's Ethnic Allies: What Motivates EAOs Fighting for the Myanmar Military?". The Irrawaddy.
  28. ↑ Phyu Phyu Ko (17 May 2013). "Two Joint Ta'ang Objectives: War on Drugs and National Liberation".
  29. ↑ "Kayah State Profile" (PDF). UNHCR Southeast Myanmar Information Management Unit. June 2014. p. 5.
  30. ↑ "Expansion of new districts in Nay Pyi Taw, regions and states according to political, administrative, economic and social development". Ministry of Information. 2 May 2022.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "နောက်ခံသမိုင်းကြောင်း" [Background history]. Myanmar National Portal (in Burmese). 2018. Archived from the original on 11 June 2026. Retrieved 27 August 2026.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "မွန်ပြည်နယ်၏ နောက်ခံသမိုင်း" [Background history of Mon State]. Mon State Government. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2026.
  33. 1 2 UNDP (June 2015). Mapping the State of Local Governance in Myanmar: Background and Methodology (Report). United Nations.
  34. ↑ "Expansion of new districts: New districts expanded in Nay Pyi Taw, regions and states". Myanmar International Television. 2 May 2022.
  35. 1 2 3 4 Constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma (PDF), 1974
  36. ↑ Pathein Township. မြို့နယ်အထွေထွေအုပ်ချုပ်ရေးဦးစီးဌာန ပုသိမ်မြို့နယ် ဒေသဆိုင်ရာအချက်လက်များ (Report). Myanmar Information Management Unit.
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "အထွေထွေအုပ်ချုပ်ရေးဦးစီးဌာနသမိုင်းကြောင်း" [History of General Administration Department]. 2026. Retrieved 26 August 2026.
  38. ↑ Department of Population, Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population (December 2016). THEMATIC REPORT ON MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION (PDF) (Report). UNFPA. p. 109.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ↑ Thinzar Shunlei Yi (29 August 2018). "Myanmar: Under the name of democracy, the military rules". Civicus. Retrieved 31 August 2026.
  40. ↑ development organizations laws of states and regions other than Yangon Region
  41. ↑ ရန်ကုန်တိုင်းဒေသကြီးစည်ပင်သာယာရေးဥပဒေ [Yangon Region Development Law]. Yangon Region Hluttaw. 30 September 2013.
  42. ↑ စည်ပင်သာယာရေးအဖွဲ့များဥပဒေ [Development Organizations Law]. State Law and Order Restoration Council. 1 April 1993.
  43. 1 2 "Districts in Yangon Region" (PDF). Myanmar Information Management Unit. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2019.
  44. ↑ Ford, William; Owen, James; Pillai, Sunil. Insight into Urban Well-Being in Myanmar: The 2018 City Life Survey (PDF) (Report). The Asia Foundation.
  45. ↑ The City of Rangoon Municipal Law. Legislative Council of Burma. 1922.
  46. 1 2 Constitution of the Union of Burma, 1947
  47. 1 2 ဆန်းနွေဦး (12 January 2020). "သာစွဌာနီ ကန္ဒရဝတီ" (in Burmese). Retrieved 26 August 2026.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "ကရင်ပြည်နယ်နေ့ဖြစ်ပေါ်လာပုံ" [The Origin of Karen State Day]. Karen Information Center (in Burmese). 28 October 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2026.
  49. ↑ "An Introduction to the Toponymy of Burma" The Permanent Committee of Geographic Names (PCGN), United Kingdom, October 2007, accessed 18 April 2010
  50. ↑ The Research Staff of the Indian Council of World Affairs (December 1949), "Burma Since Separation", India Quarterly, 5 (4): 355, retrieved 27 August 2026
  51. ↑ Rau, Benegal Narsing (8 January 1948), "Far Eastern Section: The Constitution of the Union of Burma", Washinton Law Review, 23 (3), retrieved 27 August 2026
  52. ↑ Houng Kyaw Gei (May 2016), Chin Special Division (1948-1974) (PDF), Department of History, University of Yangon
  53. ↑ The Adaptation of Expressions Law. State Law and Order Restoration Council. 18 June 1989.
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