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Sanatan Dharma

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Sanātana Dharma
सनातन धर्म
TypeReligious, philosophical, and cultural tradition
ScriptureDiverse Hindu scriptures, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Puranas, and Dharmaśāstra literature
TheologyDiverse; includes monism, theism, henotheism, polytheism, and other perspectives
LanguageSanskrit and other languages of the Indian subcontinent
TerritoryIndian subcontinent and global Hindu communities
FounderNone
OriginNot applicable; the expression has ancient textual attestations, while its modern use as a general designation for Hinduism developed in the colonial period

Sanātana Dharma (Sanskrit: सनातन धर्म, romanized: Sanātana Dharma; literally, "eternal dharma")[1] is a Sanskrit expression used in Hindu traditions to describe enduring or eternal dharma. The expression occurs in classical and medieval Sanskrit literature in a variety of grammatical forms and contexts, where it can refer to enduring duties, principles, practices, or religious order. Hinduism is now the widely used term for the diverse religious traditions of the Indian subcontinent, while Sanātana Dharma is also used by Hindus as a designation for those traditions.[2]

Sanātana Dharma encompasses diverse religious and philosophical traditions concerned with dharma, karma, saṃsāra (rebirth), and mokṣa (liberation). The Upanishads explore the nature of the self (ātman), ultimate reality (Brahman), and consciousness, while the Bhagavad Gītā connects dharma with disciplined action, knowledge, devotion, and liberation.[3][4] Hindu traditions offers a wide understanding of these concepts and in the paths they emphasise, including devotion (bhakti), knowledge (jñāna), disciplined action (karma yoga), meditation, and ritual practice. Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, Śākta, Smārta, and other traditions consequently have distinct theological perspectives on deity, consciousness, dharma, and liberation.

The use of Sanātana Dharma as a general designation for Hinduism became prominent during the late colonial period, particularly amid debates concerning Hindu tradition, reform, and religious identity.[5] John Zavos describes its emergence as part of the formation of a broad, pan-Hindu identity.[6] Hinduism is the widely used modern term for the diverse religious traditions associated with the Indian subcontinent; Sanātana Dharma is used as a traditional designation and self-designation for Hindu religious tradition.[7]

Terminology

Sanskrit etymology

A Sanskrit manuscript of the Chandogya Upanishad, associated with the Samaveda and written in Devanagari script, 1865

The expression sanātana dharma consists of the Sanskrit words sanātana (सनातन) and dharma (धर्म). Sanātana is an adjective meaning "eternal", "perpetual", "permanent", or "ancient"; its precise sense depends on context.[8]

Dharma is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root √dhṛ (धृ), "to hold", "support", or "sustain". The noun has a broad semantic range that developed across Sanskrit literature and may refer, depending on context, to an established order, duty, law, conduct, religious or moral principle, or the nature of something.[9][10]

Meaning of sanātana

The Sanskrit adjective sanātana has meanings including "eternal", "perpetual", "everlasting", "permanent", and "ancient" or "primeval". It is therefore not restricted to the English concept of "eternity". Its meaning in compounds and particular passages depends on context.[11]

Meaning of dharma

Dharma has no single English equivalent. In Sanskrit literature it can denote an established order, duty, law, right conduct, religious or moral principle, or a characteristic nature, among other meanings.[12] Its meaning varies according to textual and historical context, and translating it simply as "duty", "law", or "religion" can obscure this range.[13]

Meanings and translations of sanātana dharma

The compound sanātana dharma can be translated literally as "eternal dharma", although "eternal law", "eternal duty", or "eternal order" may be used depending on the context. No single English translation fully conveys the range of meanings of dharma.[14][15]

Ancient Textual Usage

Early Sanskrit literature

The terms sanātana and dharma occur separately in early Sanskrit literature, but the compound sanātana dharma is not attested in the Vedas or principal Upanishads.[16]

The Rigveda (3.3.1) contains dharmāṇi sanatā, commonly translated as "eternal duties" or "everlasting laws".[17] These early occurrences establish the antiquity of the concepts expressed by sanātana and dharma, but not Sanātana Dharma as a general name for the religion later called Hinduism.[18] The phrase dharma sanātana occurs in classical Sanskrit literature, for example, in the Manusmriti (4-138)[19] (c. 1st – 3rd century CE) and in the Bhagavata Purana[20][21] (c. 8th – 10th century CE). The phrase dharmāni sanatā is mentioned in the classical Sanskrit literature Rigveda (3.3.1) (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE), which means "eternal duties".[22] In the Atharvaveda (10.8.22) (c. 1200 – 900 BCE), the Supreme Being is called Sanātanam (eternal), and that Sanātanam God is worshipped.[23]

The Mahābhārata

The compound sanātana dharma occurs frequently in the Mahābhārata, with more than 150 occurrences in different contexts.[24] It is used for enduring duties, practices, customs, or principles rather than as a general name for the religion of the text's characters.[25]

For example, in the Śānti Parva (12.57.11), the duties of kings towards the welfare of their subjects, including truthfulness and proper conduct, are described as dharmaḥ sanātanaḥ ("eternal duty").[26] The varied contexts in which the expression occurs indicate that its meaning was determined by the particular duty, custom, or principle being described.[27]

The Bhagavad Gītā

A 19th-century illustrated Sanskrit manuscript of the Bhagavad Gītā, depicting Arjuna at the beginning of the Kurukṣetra War

The Bhagavad Gītā uses sanātana and dharma in several contexts. In 1.39, Arjuna refers to kula-dharmāḥ sanātanāḥ, the enduring or ancient duties and traditions of a family; in 2.24, sanātana describes the enduring nature of the self; and in 11.18, Kṛṣṇa is described as the guardian of śāśvata-dharma, eternal dharma.[28] These passages illustrate the use of sanātana to describe what is enduring or eternal and dharma in relation to duty, tradition, and cosmic or religious order, but they do not present Sanātana Dharma as the name of a religion.[29]

Dharmaśāstra literature

The Dharmaśāstra texts developed systematic treatments of dharma, addressing duties, conduct, social order, law, and religious obligations. Major works include the Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti, and Nārada Smṛti.[30]

These texts use terms such as sanātana and dharma in describing enduring duties and principles, but their discussions concern particular forms of dharma rather than Sanātana Dharma as a general name for Hinduism.[31] The Dharmaśāstra tradition also treated dharma as context-dependent, with distinctions based on factors such as social role, stage of life, place, and circumstance.[32]

Purāṇic literature

The Purāṇas, part of the Sanskrit smṛti tradition, contain occurrences of sanātana dharma and related formulations. They discuss dharma through narratives concerning deities, sages, cosmology, pilgrimage, ritual, devotion, and social conduct.[33]

The Purāṇas comprise diverse texts associated with different Hindu traditions, including Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, and Śākta traditions. Their use of dharma therefore occurs in varied theological and ritual contexts rather than constituting a single uniform definition of Sanātana Dharma.[34]

Contemporary usage

Today, Sanatan Dharma is used as a synonym for Hinduism.[7] In current-day usage, the term sanatan dharma is diminished and used to emphasize a "traditional” or sanatani ("eternalist") outlook in contrast to the socio-political Hinduism embraced by movements such as the Arya Samaj.[35][36][37] In sharp contrast to the efforts by Lahore Sanatan Dharma Sabha to preserve the Hindu tradition against the onslaught of reform, now it is being stressed that Sanatan Dharma cannot be rigid, it has to be inclusive without excluding the best and totality of knowledge to guide the karmic process, especially as Sanatan has no beginning and no end.[38]

Religious and philosophical understandings

In Hindu thought, dharma can refer to religious, ethical, social, and legal duties and principles. Classical traditions often understood dharma contextually, with duties varying according to factors such as social role, stage of life, and circumstance.[39] From the 19th century onward, some Hindu thinkers increasingly presented dharma as a universal and eternal system of moral virtues, contributing to modern understandings of Sanātana Dharma.[40]

Eternal and universal dharma

This universalising interpretation is not a single, universally recognised Hindu doctrine. The diversity of Hindu traditions has produced different understandings of what constitutes eternal or universal dharma.[41]

General and particular duties

Hindu Dharmaśāstra literature distinguishes between general duties, often termed sāmānya or sādhāraṇa dharma, and particular duties (viśeṣa dharma). General duties are understood as applicable broadly, while particular duties vary according to a person's social role, stage of life, or circumstances.[42]

The Manusmṛti (6.92) gives ten characteristics of dharma, including steadfastness, forgiveness, self-control, purity, truthfulness, and absence of anger.[43] Particular duties include those associated with varṇa, āśrama, occupation, and other circumstances, and may differ according to the person's position and situation.[44]

Sanātana dharma and svadharma

The Bhagavad Gītā distinguishes svadharma, one's own or particular dharma, from paradharma, the dharma of another. In 3.35 and 18.47, Kṛṣṇa teaches that performing one's own dharma, even imperfectly, is preferable to performing another's well.[45]

Later Hindu interpretations have related svadharma to duties arising from an individual's role, stage of life, disposition, or circumstances, while sanātana dharma has been used for enduring or general principles of dharma.[46]

Varṇāśrama-dharma

Varṇāśrama-dharma refers to duties associated with varṇa (social order) and āśrama (stage of life) in Hindu Dharmaśāstra traditions. The Bhagavad Gītā describes duties associated with the four varṇas and teaches that a person should perform their own duty (svadharma).[47]

Dharmaśāstra texts also prescribe duties according to varṇa and stages of life, including studenthood, householdership, retirement, and renunciation.These prescriptions formed one strand of Hindu thought concerning social and religious duties, rather than a single uniform system shared by all Hindu traditions.[48]

Dharma, karma and liberation

A person practising yoga in silhouette

Hindu traditions commonly connect dharma with karma (action) and moksha (liberation). The Bhagavad Gītā teaches that action should be performed without attachment to its results and as an offering to the divine (3.19, 3.30).[49]

The Gītā further states that knowledge, disciplined action, and devotion can lead beyond the consequences of action and ultimately to liberation (4.18–23; 5.10–12; 18.45–46).dharma is presented not merely as a system of duties but as part of a broader path in which action, knowledge, and devotion are related to liberation.

Different Hindu philosophical traditions have interpreted these relationships differently, particularly concerning the role of ritual action, knowledge, devotion, and renunciation in attaining liberation.[50]

Traditions and interpretations

Vaishnavism

In Vaiṣṇava traditions, sanātana dharma may be understood in relation to devotion (bhakti) to Viṣṇu and his manifestations, including Kṛṣṇa and Rāma. The Bhagavad Gītā presents devotion to Kṛṣṇa as a means of attaining him and ultimately overcoming the cycle of rebirth (9.34; 18.65–66).[51]

Vaiṣṇava traditions have developed different theological interpretations of the relationship between dharma, bhakti, the individual self, and liberation. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa, for example, presents devotion to Bhagavān as the highest form of religious practice and associates it with liberation from worldly attachment (1.2.6–7).[52]

In early modern Vaiṣṇava traditions, including the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava tradition, bhakti was further developed as a distinctive religious and ethical path in dialogue with established Hindu traditions of knowledge, ritual action, and yoga.[53]

Shaivism

Śiva as Naṭarāja, the Lord of Dance, Chola period, Tamil Nadu, c. 950–1000

In Śaiva traditions, sanātana dharma may be understood in relation to devotion to Śiva, religious discipline, and liberation. Śaiva scriptures and traditions present Śiva as the supreme deity and associate devotion, ethical conduct, ritual practice, and knowledge with the pursuit of liberation.[54]

The Śiva Purāṇa uses sanātana in connection with dharma in several passages. For example, the Vāyavīya Saṃhitā describes a form of dharma as sanātana and associates adherence to it with the attainment of dharma, kāma, artha, and mokṣa.[55] Another passage describes the duties of different groups as dharma ... sanātanaḥ, illustrating the use of sanātana for an enduring religious or ethical order.[56]

Śaiva traditions are diverse and include systems such as Śaiva Siddhānta, Kashmir Śaivism, and various Śaiva Āgamic traditions. Their understandings of Śiva, the self, bondage, religious practice, and liberation therefore differ, and Sanātana Dharma does not have a single uniform interpretation across Śaivism.

Shaktism

A 20th-century Indian painting depicting Pārvatī with her son Gaṇeśa

In Śākta traditions, religious practice centres on the worship of Devī or Śakti, understood in different traditions as the supreme deity or as the power of the divine. The Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa presents Devī as the supreme reality and identifies devotion to her with a path towards liberation.[57]

The text also describes the worship of Devī as a form of dharma and connects such worship with the attainment of liberation. In its discussion of the worship of Devī, the text describes religious observances and identifies devotion to her with freedom from worldly bondage.[58]

Smarta tradition

Ādi Śaṅkara with his disciples, depicted by Raja Ravi Varma, c. 1904

In the Smārta tradition, dharma is understood through the authority of smṛti literature and within a broad framework that accommodates the worship of different Hindu deities. Smārta practice is particularly associated with pañcāyatana pūjā, in which Śiva, Viṣṇu, Devī, Sūrya, and Gaṇeśa are worshipped together, with the devotee's chosen deity occupying the central position.[59]

The Smārta tradition became closely associated with Advaita Vedānta, particularly through the influence traditionally attributed to Śaṅkara. In this framework, the various personal forms of the divine are understood in relation to the non-dual Brahman, while devotion and ritual practice can form part of the path towards knowledge and liberation.[60]

Other Hindu traditions

Hindu traditions extend beyond Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism, Śāktism, and the Smārta tradition. They include traditions centred on deities such as Gaṇeśa and Sūrya, as well as regional, devotional, Tantric, and other traditions with distinctive scriptures, practices, and theological perspectives.[61]

Some traditions combine elements associated with more than one sectarian classification, while others developed distinctive forms of ritual, devotion, philosophy, or religious discipline. Hindu traditions have therefore historically been diverse in their understandings of deity, dharma, ritual, social order, and liberation.These diverse traditions may use Sanātana Dharma in different ways, and no single interpretation of the term can be taken as representative of all Hindu communities.[62]

Emergence of Sanātana Dharma as a Hindu designation

Early modern usage

The expression sanātana dharma continued to occur in Sanskrit and vernacular religious literature before the colonial period, generally referring to enduring duties, religious principles, or established practices .[63]

Evidence for the use of Sanātana Dharma as a comprehensive designation for the diverse religious traditions later termed Hinduism becomes clear only in the late colonial period. [64]

Colonial India

The emergence of Sanātana Dharma was a continuation of an unchanged ancient designation. Zavos argues that it became part of the modernisation of Hindu identity, contributing to a broad, pan-Hindu formulation that sought to accommodate diverse traditions while defending established practices.[65]

Organisations using the designation included regional Sanātana Dharma Sabhas and, from the late 19th century, the Bhārat Dharma Mahāmaṇḍal. These organisations participated in the wider formation of a self-conscious Hindu identity during the colonial period.[66]

Hindu revival movements

The emergence of modern Hindu revival movements in the 19th century contributed to new debates over the meaning and scope of Sanātana Dharma. Movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj sought to revive Hindu consciousness by reviving religious and social practices, while organisations identifying with Sanātana Dharma defended established traditions and practices.[67]

Hindu organisations that defended sanātana dharma also undertook religious and social reforms, while reform movements could combine reformist programmes with appeals to an idealised Hindu past.[68]

This interaction helped reshape Sanātana Dharma as a modern formulation of Hindu tradition, capable of incorporating diverse religious practices while responding to colonial criticism, missionary activity, and internal debates about religious and social reform.[69]

Development of a pan-Hindu identity

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sanātana Dharma increasingly provided a framework for presenting diverse Hindu traditions as parts of a broader religious identity. John Zavos describes this as the development of a doctrinally pan-Hindu identity within the modernisation of Hinduism.[70]

This formulation sought to accommodate diverse beliefs and practices while emphasising their common religious and cultural foundations. It developed alongside organisations, publications, and movements concerned with defining and representing Hindu tradition in response to colonial institutions, Christian missionary activity, and internal religious debates.[71]

Sanātana Dharma became the way of expressing a shared identity across otherwise diverse traditions.[72]

Competition with other denominations

Reformists such as the Arya Samaj, the Radha Soamis and the Ramakrishna Mission have competed for adherents for more than a century, sometimes creating deep schisms in Hindu society, as in the case of South African Hindus who were split between the Arya Samaj and Sanatanis.[73] While the reformist groups were better organized initially, by the 1860s, a process of internal counter-reform was underway in Sanatani groups as well, and societies to propagate orthodox beliefs along modern lines emerged, such as Sanatan Dharma Rakshini Sabha in 1873.[74][75][76]

Relationship with Hinduism

Sanātana Dharma and the term "Hinduism"

The terms Sanātana Dharma and Hinduism are related but are not historically synonymous in all contexts. The expression sanātana dharma occurs in classical and medieval Sanskrit literature, where it was used in various contexts to describe enduring or eternal duties, practices, or principles[77]

The use of Sanātana Dharma as a designation for Hinduism became prominent during the late 19th century, particularly in the context of debates between Hindu traditionalists and reform movements. John Zavos argues that the expression became associated with the formation of a broad, non-confrontational pan-Hindu identity and with efforts to defend Hindu traditions against reformist and missionary criticism.[78] Scholars have consequently treated the modern use of Sanātana Dharma alongside other terms that developed or acquired new significance during the colonial period, including "Hinduism".[79]

In contemporary usage Hindus use Sanātana Dharma as a self-designation for Hinduism, sometimes emphasising the perceived antiquity, continuity, or universality of their religious tradition. The term is therefore both a traditional religious expression and a modern identity designation, and its meaning varies among Hindu communities and authors.[80][81]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Sanatana dharma | Hinduism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
  2. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  3. ↑ Lobel, Diana (2011). "You Are the Absolute: Philosophies of India". The Quest for God and the Good: World Philosophy as a Living Experience. Columbia University Press. pp. 87–97.
  4. ↑ "3.19, 3.30, 9.34, 18.65–66". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  5. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  6. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  7. 1 2 Lester R. Kurtz (2007), Gods in the global village: the world's religions in sociological perspective, Pine Forge Press, p. 49, ISBN 978-1-4129-2715-4 Cite error: The named reference "ref70cumez" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ↑ Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Clarendon Press. p. 1141.
  9. ↑ Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Clarendon Press. p. 519.
  10. ↑ Sharma, Arvind (2005). Modern Hindu Thought: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 89–105.
  11. ↑ Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Clarendon Press. p. 1141.
  12. ↑ Sharma, Arvind (2005). Modern Hindu Thought: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 89–105.
  13. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  14. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  15. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  16. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  17. ↑ "The Rigveda: Metrically Restored Text: Book 3". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 26 September 2026.
  18. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  19. ↑ Manusmriti (4-138), ... "Satyam bruyatpriyam bruyanna bruyatsatyamapriyam. Priyam cha nanrtam bruyadesa dharmah sanatanah." (Translation: "Speak the truth, speak the truth that is pleasant. Do not speak the truth to manipulate. Do not speak falsely to please or flatter someone. This is the quality of the eternal dharma") ...
  20. ↑ Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanda, "Srimad-Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana) (8.14.4)", Bhaktivedanda Vedabase, ... "catur-yugānte kālena grastāñ chruti-gaṇān yathā । tapasā ṛṣayo 'paśyan yato dharmaḥ sanātanaḥ" (Translation: "At the end of every four yugas, the great saintly persons, upon seeing that the eternal [sanātanaḥ] occupational duties [dharmaḥ] of mankind have been misused, reestablish the principles of religion.") .... Other shlokas are 3.16.18 (sanātano dharmo); 7.11.2 (dharmaṁ sanātanam); 7.11.5 (sanātanaṁ dharmaṁ); 8.8.39, 8.14.4, 10.4.39 (dharmaḥ sanātanaḥ).
  21. ↑ Authority, Anxiety, and Canon By Laurie L. Patton, P. 103.
  22. ↑ Ganga Sahay Sharma (2015). "Rigveda" (in Hindi). p. 573. Retrieved 21 May 2026.
  23. ↑ Ganga Sahay Sharma. "Atharva Veda". p. 562. Retrieved 21 May 2026.
  24. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  25. ↑ Jayaraman, Vaishali (2019). "Sanātana Dharma in the Mahābhārata". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  26. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  27. ↑ Jayaraman, Vaishali (2019). "Sanātana Dharma in the Mahābhārata". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ↑ "1.39, 2.24, 11.18". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  29. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  30. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  31. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  32. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  33. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  34. ↑ Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Purāṇas. Otto Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447025225.
  35. ↑ Dansk etnografisk forening (1995), Folk, Volumes 36-37, Dansk etnografisk forening, 1995, ... The Arya Samaj and their activities can be understood as representing a cultural revivalist movement ... the orthodox Hindus, the Sanatanis, who supported and protected Sanatana Dharma (eternal religion) ...
  36. ↑ Anupama Arya (2001), Religion and politics in India: a study of the role of Arya Samaj, K.K. Publications, 2001, ... the Samaj is opposed to idol worship which is practised in the traditional Sanatana Dharma of Hindu ... difference between the Arya Samaj and those movements was that the former was a revivalist and a fundamentalist movement ...
  37. ↑ Robin Rinehart (1999), One lifetime, many lives: the experience of modern Hindu hagiography, Oxford University Press US, 1999, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-7885-0555-3, ... the Lahore Sanatana Dharma Sabha [society for the eternal dharma], which was an organization dedicated to preserving what it considered the true Hindu tradition against the onslaught of reform and revival groups ...
  38. ↑ "Sanatana Mission". Sanatana Mission. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  39. ↑ Davis, Donald R. Jr. (16 November 2021). "Dharma: Hindu". The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119009924.eopr0100. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  40. ↑ Davis, Donald R. Jr. (16 November 2021). "Dharma: Hindu". The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119009924.eopr0100. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  41. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  42. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  43. ↑ Bühler, Georg (1886). "6.92". The Laws of Manu. The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 25. Clarendon Press.
  44. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  45. ↑ "3.35, 18.47". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  46. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  47. ↑ "4.13; 18.41–48". The Bhagavad Gītā. Internet Sacred Text Archive.
  48. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1999). The Dharmasūtras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192838827.
  49. ↑ "3.19, 3.30". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  50. ↑ "4.18–23, 5.10–12, 18.45–46". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  51. ↑ "9.34, 18.65–66". The Bhagavad Gītā. Translated by Winthrop Sargeant. State University of New York Press. 2009. ISBN 9781438428420.
  52. ↑ "1.2.6–7". Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Translated by Motilal Banarsidass. Motilal Banarsidass. 1950.
  53. ↑ Edelmann, Jonathan (2022). "Examining Hindu Ethics: The Three Yogas in Bhāgavata Purāṇa Commentaries". Journal of Religious Ethics. 50 (1): 40–59. doi:10.1111/jore.12377.
  54. ↑ Śiva Purāṇa. Motilal Banarsidass. 1970.
  55. ↑ "Shiva Purana Verse 7.2.10.20". Wisdom Library.
  56. ↑ "Shiva Purana Verse 7.2.11.25". Wisdom Library.
  57. ↑ "11.18". Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Translated by Swami Vijnanananda. Motilal Banarsidass. 1921.
  58. ↑ "On the Greatness of the Devī Pūjā". Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa.
  59. ↑ Bühnemann, Gudrun (2003). Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions. Brill.
  60. ↑ Hiltebeitel, Alf (2013). Hinduism and Its Others: The Historical and Theological Contexts of the Smārta Tradition. Oxford University Press.
  61. ↑ Flood, Gavin (2022). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice. Oxford University Press.
  62. ↑ Patton, Laurie (2011). "Defining Hinduism". Oxford Bibliographies in Hinduism. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0015.
  63. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  64. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  65. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  66. ↑ Kasturi, Malavika (2010). "'All gifting is sacred': The Sanatana Dharma Sabha movement, the reform of dana and civil society in late colonial India". Indian Economic & Social History Review. 47 (1): 1–29.
  67. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  68. ↑ Singh, Mohinder (2022). "Religious Criticism, Public Reason and Affect in the Reformist Age: Early Arya Samaj and the Religious Controversies". International Journal of the Sociology of Religion.
  69. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  70. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  71. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  72. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29: 1–32. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  73. ↑ Thillayvel Naidoo (1992), The Arya Samaj movement in South Africa, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1992, ISBN 978-81-208-0769-3, ... The reception accorded the Arya Samaj ... The Hindu community ... was split into two camps, one supportive and the other antagonistic ... attitudes of intransigence which characterised dialogue between the two groups ... the two terms "Samajists" and "Sanatanis" came into vogue ...
  74. ↑ Philip Lutgendorf (1991), The life of a text: performing the Rāmcaritmānas of Tulsidas, University of California Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0-520-06690-8, ... Perhaps the most significant impact of the Arya Samaj, the most reformist ... came from the organizational model it presented, which increasingly came to be emulated by orthodox groups ... the Sanatan Dharm Rakshini Sabha ... formed in Calcutta in 1873 ...
  75. ↑ Tika Ram Sharma, D. M. Gupta (1987), Essays on Rabindranath Tagore, Vimal Prakashan, 1987, ... The aftermath of the bitter and violent attack of Aryasamaj on idol-worship and an equally enthusiastic rebuttal by Sanatanis in the first three decades of this century presented as alarming a scene as a clash between Hindu and Muslim ...
  76. ↑ Agehananda Bharati (Swami) (1972), The Asians in East Africa: Jayhind and UhuruProfessional-technical series, Nelson-Hall Co., 1972, ISBN 978-0-911012-49-1, ... If we regard the Arya Samaj as a Protestant movement— and it is that on all counts— and the sanatanis as the traditionalists, the Hindu "Catholics," so to speak ...
  77. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  78. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  79. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.
  80. ↑ Zavos, John (2001). "Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India". Religion. 31 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1006/reli.2001.0322.
  81. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2025). "A Brief History of the Eternal Religion: A Genealogy of Sanātana Dharma". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 29. doi:10.1007/s11407-024-09377-2.

Bibliography

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