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Optical microcavity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Optical microresonators)
Time-resolved simulation of the dynamics of a pulse illuminating a microcavity.

An optical microcavity or microresonator is a structure formed by reflecting faces on the two sides of a spacer layer or optical medium, or by wrapping a waveguide in a circular fashion to form a ring. The former type is a standing wave cavity, and the latter is a traveling wave cavity. The name microcavity stems from the fact that it is often only a few micrometers thick, the spacer layer sometimes even in the nanometer range. As with common lasers, this forms an optical cavity or optical resonator, allowing a standing wave to form inside the spacer layer or a traveling wave that goes around in the ring.

Applications and effects

[edit]

The fundamental difference between a conventional optical cavity and microcavities is the effects that arise from the small dimensions of the system, but their operational principle can often be understood in the same way as for larger optical resonators. Quantum effects of the light's electromagnetic field can be observed.[1] For example, the spontaneous emission rate and behaviour of atoms is altered by such a microcavity, a phenomenon that is referred to as inhibited spontaneous emission.[2] One can imagine this as the situation that no photon is emitted, if the environment is a box that is too small to hold it. This leads to an altered emission spectrum, which is significantly narrowed.

Moreover, nonlinear effects are enhanced by orders of magnitude due to the strong light confinement, leading to the generation of microresonator frequency combs, low-power parametric processes such as down-conversion, second-harmonic generation, four-wave mixing and optical parametric oscillation.[3] Several of these nonlinear processes themselves lead to the generation of quantum states of light. Another field that harnesses the strong confinement of light is cavity optomechanics, where the back-and-forth interaction of the light beam with the mechanical motion of the resonator becomes strongly coupled.[4][5] Even in this field, quantum effects can start playing a role.[6]

Microcavities have many applications, frequently at present in optoelectronics, where vertical cavity surface emitting lasers VCSEL are probably the best known. Recently, a single photon emitting device was demonstrated by placing a quantum dot in a microcavity. These light sources are interesting for quantum cryptography and quantum computers.

An overview is given in the review article published in the journal Nature.[7]

Types

[edit]

Standing-wave

[edit]

For a microcavity supporting a single-mode or a few standing-wave modes, the thickness of the spacer layer determines the so-called "cavity-mode", which is the one wavelength that can be transmitted and will be formed as a standing wave inside the resonator. Depending on the type and quality of the mirrors, a so-called stop-band will form in the transmission spectrum of the microcavity, a long range of wavelengths, that is reflected and a single one being transmitted (usually in the centre). There are different means of fabricating standing-wave microcavities, either by evaporating alternating layers of dielectric media to form the mirrors (DBR) and the medium inside the spacer layer or by modification of semiconductor material or by metal mirrors.

Traveling-wave

[edit]

Often just called "microresonators", traveling wave microcavities have a wave going around in a loop-like fashion in a preferred direction, depending on the input light direction. They can be in the form of whispering-gallery resonators, or as integrated ring resonators. Typical materials from which they are made could be semiconductors like Silicon, Silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, crystalline fluorides (CaF2, MgF2, SrF2) or lithium niobate. The material is chosen such that it is low-loss and transparent in the wavelength of application desired. Typically, such structures are fabricated by either diamond turning or micromachining a cylindrical rod of a material (especially for fluorides and lithium niobate), or by photolithography and electron-beam lithography to produce a patterned resonator on chip (for silicon-based materials).[8][9]

When an integer number of wavelengths in the material fits in the circumference of the resonator, a resonant wave is excited by constructive interference. At resonance, the light field can be enhanced by several hundred to several million times, quantified by the Finesse Coefficient of the resonator.[10] This also leads to an ultrahigh quality factor, meaning that light travels around the circumference many million times before decaying into the surroundings.[11][12]

Photonic atoms and molecules

[edit]

The properties of quantized confined photon states in optical micro- and nanocavities are very similar to those of confined electron states in atoms.[13] Owing to this similarity, optical microcavities can be termed 'photonic atoms'. Taking this analogy even further, a cluster of several mutually-coupled photonic atoms forms a photonic molecule.[14] When individual photonic atoms are brought into close proximity, their optical modes interact and give rise to a spectrum of hybridized super-modes of photonic molecules.[15] This is very similar to what happens when two isolated systems are coupled, like two hydrogen atomic orbitals coming together to form the bonding and antibonding orbitals of the hydrogen molecule, which are hybridized super-modes of the total coupled system.

"A micrometer-sized piece of semiconductor can trap photons inside it in such a way that they act like electrons in an atom. Now the 21 September PRL describes a way to link two of these "photonic atoms" together. The result of such a close relationship is a "photonic molecule," whose optical modes bear a strong resemblance to the electronic states of a diatomic molecule like hydrogen."[16] "Photonic molecules, named by analogy with chemical molecules, are clusters of closely located electromagnetically interacting microcavities or "photonic atoms"."[17] "Optically coupled microcavities have emerged as photonic structures with promising properties for investigation of fundamental science as well as for applications."[18]

The first photonic realization of the two-level system of a photonic molecule was by Spreew et al.,[19] who used optical fibers to realize a ring resonator, although they did not use the term "photonic molecule". The two modes forming the molecule could then be the polarization modes of the ring or the clockwise and counterclockwise modes of the ring. This was followed by the demonstration of a lithographically fabricated photonic molecule, inspired by an analogy with a simple diatomic molecule.[20] However, other nature-inspired PM structures (such as 'photonic benzene') have been proposed and shown to support confined optical modes closely analogous to the ground-state molecular orbitals of their chemical counterparts.[21]

Photonic molecules offer advantages over isolated photonic atoms in a variety of applications, including bio(chemical) sensing,[22][23] cavity optomechanics,[24][25] and microlasers,[26][27][28][29] Photonic molecules can also be used as quantum simulators of many-body physics and as building blocks of future optical quantum information processing networks.[30]

In complete analogy, clusters of metal nanoparticles – which support confined surface plasmon states – have been termed 'plasmonic molecules."[31][32][33][34][35]

Finally, hybrid photonic-plasmonic (or opto-plasmonic)[36][37][38][39] and elastic molecules[40] have also been proposed and demonstrated.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Fürst, J. U.; Strekalov, D. V.; Elser, D.; Aiello, A.; Andersen, U. L.; Marquardt, Ch.; Leuchs, G. (2011-03-15). "Quantum Light from a Whispering-Gallery-Mode Disk Resonator". Physical Review Letters. 106 (11) 113901. arXiv:1008.0594. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.106k3901F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.113901. PMID 21469862. S2CID 15368404.
  2. ↑ Yablonovitch, Eli (1987-05-18). "Inhibited Spontaneous Emission in Solid-State Physics and Electronics". Physical Review Letters. 58 (20): 2059–2062. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..58.2059Y. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.2059. PMID 10034639.
  3. ↑ Fürst, J. U.; Strekalov, D. V.; Elser, D.; Aiello, A.; Andersen, U. L.; Marquardt, Ch.; Leuchs, G. (2010-12-27). "Low-Threshold Optical Parametric Oscillations in a Whispering Gallery Mode Resonator". Physical Review Letters. 105 (26) 263904. arXiv:1010.5282. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105z3904F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.263904. PMID 21231666. S2CID 21895312.
  4. ↑ Kippenberg, T. J.; Vahala, K. J. (2007-12-10). "Cavity Opto-Mechanics". Optics Express. 15 (25): 17172–17205. arXiv:0712.1618. Bibcode:2007OExpr..1517172K. doi:10.1364/OE.15.017172. ISSN 1094-4087. PMID 19551012. S2CID 1071770.
  5. ↑ Aspelmeyer, Markus; Kippenberg, Tobias J.; Marquardt, Florian (2014-12-30). "Cavity optomechanics". Reviews of Modern Physics. 86 (4): 1391–1452. arXiv:1303.0733. Bibcode:2014RvMP...86.1391A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.86.1391. S2CID 119252645.
  6. ↑ Aspelmeyer, Markus; Meystre, Pierre; Schwab, Keith (July 2012). "Quantum optomechanics". Physics Today. 65 (7): 29–35. Bibcode:2012PhT....65g..29A. doi:10.1063/PT.3.1640. ISSN 0031-9228. S2CID 241302830.
  7. ↑ Vahala, Kerry J. (2003). "Optical microcavities". Nature. 424 (6950): 839–846. Bibcode:2003Natur.424..839V. doi:10.1038/nature01939. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12917698. S2CID 4349700.
  8. ↑ Selim, M. A.; Anwar, M. (12 September 2023). "Enhanced Q-factor and effective length silicon photonics filter utilizing nested ring resonators". Journal of Optics. 25 (11): 115801. arXiv:2309.02775. Bibcode:2023JOpt...25k5801S. doi:10.1088/2040-8986/acf5fd.
  9. ↑ Shalaby, R. A.; Selim, M. A.; Adib, G. A.; Sabry, Yasser; Khalil, Diaa (2019). "Silicon photonics dual-coupler nested coupled cavities". In Reed, Graham T.; Knights, Andrew P. (eds.). Silicon Photonics XIV. Proceedings of the SPIE. Vol. 10923. pp. 187–193. Bibcode:2019SPIE10923E..1PS. doi:10.1117/12.2509661. ISBN 978-1-5106-2488-7.
  10. ↑ Savchenkov, Anatoliy A.; Matsko, Andrey B.; Ilchenko, Vladimir S.; Maleki, Lute (2007-05-28). "Optical resonators with ten million finesse". Optics Express. 15 (11): 6768–6773. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15.6768S. doi:10.1364/OE.15.006768. ISSN 1094-4087. PMID 19546987.
  11. ↑ Ji, Xingchen; Barbosa, Felippe A. S.; Roberts, Samantha P.; Dutt, Avik; Cardenas, Jaime; Okawachi, Yoshitomo; Bryant, Alex; Gaeta, Alexander L.; Lipson, Michal (2017-06-20). "Ultra-low-loss on-chip resonators with sub-milliwatt parametric oscillation threshold". Optica. 4 (6): 619–624. arXiv:1609.08699. Bibcode:2017Optic...4..619J. doi:10.1364/OPTICA.4.000619. ISSN 2334-2536. S2CID 119274616.
  12. ↑ Armani, D. K.; Kippenberg, T. J.; Spillane, S. M.; Vahala, K. J. (February 2003). "Ultra-high-Q toroid microcavity on a chip". Nature. 421 (6926): 925–928. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..925A. doi:10.1038/nature01371. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12606995. S2CID 4420078.
  13. ↑ Benson, T. M.; Boriskina, S. V.; Sewell, P.; Vukovic, A.; Greedy, S. C.; Nosich, A. I. (2006). "Micro-Optical Resonators for Microlasers and Integrated Optoelectronics". Frontiers in Planar Lightwave Circuit Technology. NATO Science Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. Vol. 216. p. 39. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.518.8691. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4167-5_02. ISBN 978-1-4020-4164-8. S2CID 8299535.
  14. ↑ Boriskina, S. V. (2010). "Photonic Molecules and Spectral Engineering". Photonic Microresonator Research and Applications. Springer Series in Optical Sciences. Vol. 156. pp. 393–421. arXiv:1207.1274. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1744-7_16. ISBN 978-1-4419-1743-0. S2CID 13276928.
  15. ↑ Rakovich, Y.; Donegan, J.; Gerlach, M.; Bradley, A.; Connolly, T.; Boland, J.; Gaponik, N.; Rogach, A. (2004). "Fine structure of coupled optical modes in photonic molecules". Physical Review A. 70 (5) 051801. Bibcode:2004PhRvA..70e1801R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.70.051801. hdl:2262/29166.
  16. ↑ Antia, Meher (1998). "A Molecule of Light". Physical Review Focus. Vol. 2. doi:10.1103/PhysRevFocus.2.14.
  17. ↑ Boriskina, Svetlana V.; Benson, Trevor M.; Sewell, Phillip (2007). "Photonic molecules made of matched and mismatched microcavities: New functionalities of microlasers and optoelectronic components". In Kudryashov, Alexis V; Paxton, Alan H; Ilchenko, Vladimir S (eds.). Laser Resonators and Beam Control IX. Vol. 6452. pp. 64520X. arXiv:0704.2154. doi:10.1117/12.714344. S2CID 55006344.
  18. ↑ Grossmann, Tobias; Wienhold, Tobias; Bog, Uwe; Beck, Torsten; Friedmann, Christian; Kalt, Heinz; Mappes, Timo (2013). "Polymeric photonic molecule super-mode lasers on silicon". Light: Science & Applications. 2 (5): e82. Bibcode:2013LSA.....2E..82G. doi:10.1038/lsa.2013.38.
  19. ↑ Spreeuw, R. J. C.; van Druten, N. J.; Beijersbergen, M. W.; Eliel, E. R.; Woerdman, J. P. (1990-11-19). "Classical realization of a strongly driven two-level system" (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 65 (21): 2642–2645. Bibcode:1990PhRvL..65.2642S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.65.2642. PMID 10042655.
  20. ↑ Bayer, M.; Gutbrod, T.; Reithmaier, J.; Forchel, A.; Reinecke, T.; Knipp, P.; Dremin, A.; Kulakovskii, V. (1998). "Optical Modes in Photonic Molecules". Physical Review Letters. 81 (12): 2582–2585. Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.2582B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.2582.
  21. ↑ Lin, B. (2003). "Variational analysis for photonic molecules: Application to photonic benzene waveguides". Physical Review E. 68 (3) 036611. Bibcode:2003PhRvE..68c6611L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.68.036611. PMID 14524916.
  22. ↑ Boriskina, S. V. (2006). "Spectrally engineered photonic molecules as optical sensors with enhanced sensitivity: A proposal and numerical analysis". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 23 (8): 1565. arXiv:physics/0603228. Bibcode:2006JOSAB..23.1565B. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.23.001565. S2CID 59580074.
  23. ↑ Boriskina, S. V.; Dal Negro, L. (2010). "Self-referenced photonic molecule bio(chemical)sensor". Optics Letters. 35 (14): 2496–8. Bibcode:2010OptL...35.2496B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.470.1926. doi:10.1364/OL.35.002496. PMID 20634875.
  24. ↑ Jiang, X.; Lin, Q.; Rosenberg, J.; Vahala, K.; Painter, O. (2009). "High-Q double-disk microcavities for cavity optomechanics". Optics Express. 17 (23): 20911–9. Bibcode:2009OExpr..1720911J. doi:10.1364/OE.17.020911. PMID 19997328.
  25. ↑ Hu, Y. W.; Xiao, Y. F.; Liu, Y. C.; Gong, Q. (2013). "Optomechanical sensing with on-chip microcavities". Frontiers of Physics. 8 (5): 475–490. Bibcode:2013FrPhy...8..475H. doi:10.1007/s11467-013-0384-y. S2CID 122299018.
  26. ↑ Hara, Y.; Mukaiyama, T.; Takeda, K.; Kuwata-Gonokami, M. (2003). "Photonic molecule lasing". Optics Letters. 28 (24): 2437–9. Bibcode:2003OptL...28.2437H. doi:10.1364/OL.28.002437. PMID 14690107.
  27. ↑ Nakagawa, A.; Ishii, S.; Baba, T. (2005). "Photonic molecule laser composed of GaInAsP microdisks". Applied Physics Letters. 86 (4): 041112. Bibcode:2005ApPhL..86d1112N. doi:10.1063/1.1855388.
  28. ↑ Boriskina, S. V. (2006). "Theoretical prediction of a dramatic Q-factor enhancement and degeneracy removal of whispering gallery modes in symmetrical photonic molecules". Optics Letters. 31 (3): 338–40. Bibcode:2006OptL...31..338B. doi:10.1364/OL.31.000338. PMID 16480201. S2CID 22088884.
  29. ↑ Smotrova, E. I.; Nosich, A. I.; Benson, T. M.; Sewell, P. (2006). "Threshold reduction in a cyclic photonic molecule laser composed of identical microdisks with whispering-gallery modes". Optics Letters. 31 (7): 921–3. Bibcode:2006OptL...31..921S. doi:10.1364/OL.31.000921. PMID 16599212.
  30. ↑ Hartmann, M.; Brandão, F.; Plenio, M. (2007). "Effective Spin Systems in Coupled Microcavities". Physical Review Letters. 99 (16) 160501. arXiv:0704.3056. Bibcode:2007PhRvL..99p0501H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.160501. PMID 17995228. S2CID 592659.
  31. ↑ Nordlander, P.; Oubre, C.; Prodan, E.; Li, K.; Stockman, M. I. (2004). "Plasmon Hybridization in Nanoparticle Dimers". Nano Letters. 4 (5): 899–903. Bibcode:2004NanoL...4..899N. doi:10.1021/nl049681c.
  32. ↑ Fan, J. A.; Bao, K.; Wu, C.; Bao, J.; Bardhan, R.; Halas, N. J.; Manoharan, V. N.; Shvets, G.; Nordlander, P.; Capasso, F. (2010). "Fano-like Interference in Self-Assembled Plasmonic Quadrumer Clusters". Nano Letters. 10 (11): 4680–5. Bibcode:2010NanoL..10.4680F. doi:10.1021/nl1029732. PMID 20923179.
  33. ↑ Liu, N.; Mukherjee, S.; Bao, K.; Brown, L. V.; Dorfmüller, J.; Nordlander, P.; Halas, N. J. (2012). "Magnetic Plasmon Formation and Propagation in Artificial Aromatic Molecules". Nano Letters. 12 (1): 364–9. Bibcode:2012NanoL..12..364L. doi:10.1021/nl203641z. PMID 22122612.
  34. ↑ Yan, B.; Boriskina, S. V.; Reinhard, B. R. M. (2011). "Optimizing Gold Nanoparticle Cluster Configurations (n≤ 7) for Array Applications". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 115 (11): 4578–4583. doi:10.1021/jp112146d. PMC 3095971. PMID 21603065.
  35. ↑ Yan, B.; Boriskina, S. V.; Reinhard, B. R. M. (2011). "Design and Implementation of Noble Metal Nanoparticle Cluster Arrays for Plasmon Enhanced Biosensing". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 115 (50): 24437–24453. doi:10.1021/jp207821t. PMC 3268044. PMID 22299057.
  36. ↑ Boriskina, S. V.; Reinhard, B. M. (2011). "Spectrally and spatially configurable superlenses for optoplasmonic nanocircuits". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (8): 3147–3151. arXiv:1110.6822. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.3147B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1016181108. PMC 3044402. PMID 21300898.
  37. ↑ Boriskina, S. V.; Reinhard, B. R. M. (2011). "Adaptive on-chip control of nano-optical fields with optoplasmonic vortex nanogates". Optics Express. 19 (22): 22305–15. arXiv:1111.0022. Bibcode:2011OExpr..1922305B. doi:10.1364/OE.19.022305. PMC 3298770. PMID 22109072.
  38. ↑ Hong, Y.; Pourmand, M.; Boriskina, S. V.; Reinhard, B. R. M. (2013). "Enhanced Light Focusing in Self-Assembled Optoplasmonic Clusters with Subwavelength Dimensions". Advanced Materials. 25 (1): 115–119. Bibcode:2013AdM....25..115H. doi:10.1002/adma.201202830. PMID 23055393. S2CID 205247073.
  39. ↑ Ahn, W.; Boriskina, S. V.; Hong, Y.; Reinhard, B. R. M. (2012). "Photonic–Plasmonic Mode Coupling in On-Chip Integrated Optoplasmonic Molecules". ACS Nano. 6 (1): 951–60. Bibcode:2012ACSNa...6..951A. doi:10.1021/nn204577v. PMID 22148502.
  40. ↑ Martínez-Argüello, A. M.; Toledano-Marino, M. P.; Terán-Juárez, A. E.; Flores-Olmedo, E.; Báez, G.; Sadurní, E.; Méndez-Sánchez, R. A. (2022-02-21). "Molecular orbitals of an elastic artificial benzene". Physical Review A. 105 (2) 022826. arXiv:2108.12027. Bibcode:2022PhRvA.105b2826M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.105.022826. S2CID 237347078.
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