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Frankincense

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Olibanum)
Frankincense
Boswellia sacra Syn. B. carteri tree that produces frankincense, growing inside Biosphere 2
A tall frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra), Dhofar, Oman

Frankincense, also known as olibanum (/oʊˈlɪbənəm/),[1] is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfume, obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia in the family Burseraceae. The word is from Old French franc encens ('high-quality incense').[2] There are several species of Boswellia that produce frankincense,[3] including, but not limited to, Boswellia sacra (syn. B. bhaw-dajiana, syn. B. carteri), B. frereana, B. serrata (B. thurifera), and B. papyrifera. Resin from each is available in various grades which is affected by the time in which it is harvested. The resin is hand-sorted for quality.

Etymology

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The English word frankincense derives from the Old French expression franc encens, meaning 'true incense', maybe with the sense of 'high quality incense'.[4][2] The adjective franc in Old French meant 'noble, true', in this case perhaps 'pure'; although franc is ultimately derived from the tribal name of the Franks, it is not a direct reference to them in the word frankincense.[5]

The word for frankincense in the Koine Greek of the New Testament, λίβανος, líbanos (or λιβανωτός, libanōtós), is cognate with the name of Lebanon (Greek: Λίβανος); the same can be said with regard to Arabic, Phoenician, Hebrew,[6] and Vulgar Latin: lĭbănus.[7] This is postulated to be because they both derive from the word for 'white' and that the spice route went via Mount Lebanon (Koine Greek: Λίβανος, romanized: Libanos).[6] Medieval Latin: olibanum derived from λίβανος or libanus. The leading "o" may have come from Latin: oleum, lit. 'oil', or from the Greek article o- or Arabic article al-.[8] Other names include Arabic: اللبان, romanized: al-lubān, Persian: کندر, romanized: kondor, Syriac: בוּסמִין, romanized: busmin, Hebrew: לבונה, romanized: ləvonā, Bengali: লোবান, ধুনো, romanized: lōban, dhunō, Somali: foox (fooḥ), Turkish: akgünlük, Classical Latin: tūs.[9]

Description

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Flowers and branches of the Boswellia sacra tree

The trees start producing resin at about eight to 10 years old.[10] Tapping is done two to three times per year with the final taps producing the best tears because of their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene and diterpene content. Generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Today 90 percent of the world's production of frankincense comes from the Horn of Africa, predominantly from the border communities on the Somalia–Ethiopia border.

The main species in trade are:

Recent studies indicate that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly from overexploitation.[17][18] Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%. In addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the longhorn beetle have reduced the tree population.[19] Clearing of frankincense woodlands for conversion to agriculture is also a major threat.[20]

Chemical composition

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Structure of β-boswellic acid, one of the main active components of frankincense

These are some of the chemical compounds present in frankincense:

Among various plants in the genus Boswellia, only Boswellia sacra, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia papyrifera have been confirmed to contain significant amounts of boswellic acids.[13]: 10 [13][25]

History

[edit]
Frankincense olibanum resin

Frankincense has been traded on the Somali and Arabian Peninsula for centuries.[26] Greek historian Herodotus wrote in The History that frankincense was harvested from trees in southern Arabia.[27][28] Pliny the Elder mentioned frankincense in the Naturalis Historia.[29]

Frankincense, which was used in the Roman Empire prior to the spread of Christianity, was reintroduced to Western Europe possibly by Frankish Crusaders[30] and other Western Europeans on their journeys to the Eastern Roman Empire, where it was commonly used in Catholic Mass.

Southern Arabia was an exporter of frankincense in antiquity, with some of it being traded as far as China. The 13th-century Chinese writer and customs inspector Zhao Rugua wrote that Ruxiang or xunluxiang (Chinese: 乳香 rǔ xiāng/ 薰陸香 xūn lù xiāng) comes from the three Dashi states (Chinese: 大食 dàshí – Caliphate (Arab Muslims)) of Maloba (Murbat), Shihe (Shihr), and Nufa (Dhofar), from remote mountains;[31] the trunk of the tree is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps; it is transported to the Dashi ports, then on ship to Sanfoqi.[32]

Production

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Frankincense

Thousands of tons of frankincense are traded every year to be used in religious ceremonies as incense in thuribles and by makers of perfumes and essential oils.

Somalia

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In Somalia, frankincense is harvested in the Bari and Sanaag regions: mountains lying at the northwest of Erigavo; El Afweyn District; Cal Madow mountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, including Hantaara and Habeeno plateau and a middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment; Karkaar mountains or eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankincense escarpment.[33][18]

Oman

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In Dhofar, Oman, frankincense species grow north of Salalah.[34] It was traded in the ancient coastal city of Sumhuram, now Khor Rori,[34] and Al-Baleed, an ancient port.[35] In 2000, UNESCO inscribed the sites as a World Heritage Site Land of Frankincense.[35]

Ecological status

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In 1998, the International Union for Conservation of Nature warned that one of the primary frankincense species, Boswellia sacra, is "near threatened". Frankincense trees are not covered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, but experts argue that Boswellia species meet the criteria for protection. In a 2006 study, an ecologist at Wageningen University & Research claimed that, by the late-1990s, Boswellia papyrifera trees in Eritrea were becoming hard to find. In 2019, a new paper predicted a 50% reduction in Boswellia papyrifera within the next two decades. This species, found mainly in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, accounts for about two-thirds of global frankincense production. The paper warns that all Boswellia species are threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation. Most Boswellia grow in harsh, arid regions beset by poverty and conflict. Harvesting and selling the tree's resin is one of the few sources of income for the inhabitants, resulting in overtapping.[3]

Research

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Limited clinical studies have provided weak evidence for the use of frankincense resin in certain disease conditions, but the inconsistent, low quality of research remains inconclusive for determining any effect.[36][37]

Uses

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Frankincense is often prepared inside a censer, such as the meerschaum dabqaad traditionally used in Horn of Africa.

Although the ancient Egyptians did not always distinguish frankincense from other resins such as myrrh,[38][39] references to incense from the land of Punt have been dated to the third millennium BCE.[40] Incense trees being transported for cultivation in Thebes are depicted in the so-called "Punt Colonnade" at the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.[41] The Ebers Papyrus, from around 1500 BCE, provides some of the earliest evidence for frankincense used with intent as a possible therapy.[41][42]

The incense offering occupied a prominent position in the sacrificial legislation of the ancient Hebrews.[43] The Book of Exodus (30:34–38) prescribes frankincense, blended with equal amounts of three aromatic spices, to be ground and burnt in the sacred altar before the Ark of the Covenant in the wilderness Tabernacle, where it was meant to be a holy offering—not to be enjoyed for its fragrance. The Book of Jeremiah (6:20) relates that frankincense was imported from Sheba during the 6th century BC Babylonian captivity.[44] Frankincense is mentioned in the New Testament as one of the three gifts (with gold and myrrh) that the magi "from the East" presented to the Christ Child (Matthew 2:11).

Essential oil

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Frankincense (Boswellia sacra Syn. B. carteri) essential oil

The essential oil of frankincense is produced by steam distillation of the tree resin. The oil's chemical components are 75% monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and ketones. Contrary to some commercial claims, steam distilled frankincense oils do not contain the insufficiently volatile boswellic acids (triterpenoids), although they may be present in solvent extractions. The chemistry of the essential oil is mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as A-pinene, limonene, and B-pinene.[45][46] The terpenic smell of frankincense oil is described as "terpenic, incense, peppery, spicy, old wood, woody, pine, resinous, green".[47]

See also

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Trade
Literature
Similar plants and products

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ "Medical Definition of OLIBANUM". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  2. 1 2 "Frankincense". The Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. IV: F–G (reprint 1978 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1933. p. 512. Retrieved 2021-07-04.
  3. 1 2 Fobar R (13 December 2019). "Frankincense trees—of biblical lore—are being tapped out for essential oils". National Geographic. Archived from the original on December 13, 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  4. ↑ "Frankincense (n.)". Etymonline. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  5. ↑ "Frank". Etymonline. Retrieved 26 November 2023.
  6. 1 2 Brown JP (1995). Israel and Hellas. Walter de Gruyter. p. 210. ISBN 978-3-11-014233-4.
  7. ↑ Lewis CT, Short C, eds. (1879). "II". lĭbănus. A Latin Dictionary. Retrieved 2021-07-15 – via Perseus digital library, Tufts University.
  8. ↑ "Olibanum". The Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. VII: N–Poy (reprint 1978 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1913. p. 103. Retrieved 2021-07-04.
  9. ↑ Lewis CT, Short C, eds. (1879). "tūs". A Latin Dictionary. Retrieved 2021-07-15 – via Perseus digital library, Tufts University.
  10. ↑ "Omani World Heritage Sites". www.omanwhs.gov.om. Archived from the original on 2008-10-12. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
  11. ↑ "Boswellia occulta Thulin". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2021-07-16.
  12. ↑ Johnson S, DeCarlo A, Satyal P, Dosoky NS, Sorensen A, Setzer WN (April 2019). "Organic Certification is Not Enough: The Case of the Methoxydecane Frankincense". Plants. 8 (4). MDPI: 88–. Bibcode:2019Plnts...8...88J. doi:10.3390/plants8040088. PMC 6524464. PMID 30987305.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Michael P (2012-11-09). Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively, Boswellia carterii: a qualitative and quantitative approach by chromatographic and spectroscopic methodology (Thesis). Saarland University. doi:10.22028/D291-22839.
  14. 1 2 Thulin M, Warfa AM (1987). "The Frankincense Trees (Boswellia spp., Burseraceae) of Northern Somalia and Southern Arabia". Kew Bulletin. 42 (3): 488, 492. Bibcode:1987KewBu..42..487T. doi:10.2307/4110063. JSTOR 4110063.
  15. ↑ Birdwood G (1870). "On the Genus Boswellia, with Descriptions and Figures of three new Species". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 27 (2): 111–148, plates Tab.29–32. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1870.tb00205.x. hdl:2027/chi.79869488. Retrieved 2021-07-16 – via Hathitrust.
  16. ↑ "Boswellia carteri Birdw." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2021-07-16. This is a synonym of Boswellia sacra Flück; Not accepted by Govearts,R.(1996).
  17. ↑ Klein J (5 July 2019). "Could This Be the End of Frankincense?". New York Times. Retrieved 5 July 2019.
  18. 1 2 Patinkin J (25 December 2016). "World's last wild frankincense forests are under threat". Yahoo Finance. Associated Press. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
  19. ↑ Melina R (December 21, 2011). "Christmas Staple Frankincense 'Doomed,' Ecologists Warn". LiveScience.
  20. ↑ Dejenea T, Lemenih M, Bongers F (February 2013). "Manage or convert Boswellia woodlands? Can frankincense production payoff?". Journal of Arid Environments. 89: 77–83. Bibcode:2013JArEn..89...77D. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.09.010.
  21. 1 2 3 "Olibanum.—Frankincense". Henriette's Herbal Homepage. www.henriettes-herb.com. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
  22. 1 2 "Farmacy Query". www.ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on 2004-11-10. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
  23. ↑ "Incensole acetate". NIST.
  24. ↑ Cerutti-Delasalle C, Mehiri M, Cagliero C, Rubiolo P, Bicchi C, Meierhenrich UJ, Baldovini N (October 2016). "The (+)-cis- and (+)-trans-Olibanic Acids: Key Odorants of Frankincense". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 55 (44): 13719–13723. doi:10.1002/anie.201605242. hdl:2318/1609095. PMID 27699963.
  25. ↑ Simla B (2005-03-18). Phytochemical Investigations on Boswellia Species (Thesis). Universität Hamburg. urn:nbn:de:gbv:18-25030.
  26. ↑ Ulric Killion, A Modern Chinese Journey to the West: Economic Globalis]ation And Dualism, (Nova Science Publishers: 2006), p.66
  27. ↑ ὄφιες ὑπόπτεροι
  28. ↑ Herodotus (1904) [5c BCE]. "Book III" . The History of Herodotus . Translated by Macaulay GC. p. 107 – via Wikisource.
  29. ↑ Pliny the Elder. "Chapters 30–32". The Trees That Bear Frankincense. The Natural History. Vol. XII. Translated by Bostock J. Retrieved 2021-07-15 – via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University.
  30. ↑ Baeten, Jan; Deforce, Koen; Challe, Sophia; De Vos, Dirk; Degryse, Patrick (12 November 2014). "Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners". PLOS ONE. 9 (11) e113142. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k3142B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0113142. PMC 4229304. PMID 25391130.
  31. ↑ Kauz R (2010). Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 130. ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2. Retrieved December 26, 2011. The frankincense was first collected in the Hadhramaut ports of Mirbat, Shihr, and Zufar whence Arab merchant vessels shipped it to Srivijaya, before it was then reexported to China
  32. ↑ Kauz R (2010). Ralph Kauz (ed.). Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 131. ISBN 978-3-447-06103-2. Retrieved December 26, 2011.
  33. ↑ War-Torn Societies Project International, Somali Programme (2001). Rebuilding Somalia: Issues and possibilities for Puntland. London: HAAN. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-874209-04-1.
  34. 1 2 Coppi A, Cecchi L, Selvi F, Raffaelli M (2010-03-18). "The Frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra, Burseraceae) from Oman: ITS and ISSR analyses of genetic diversity and implications for conservation". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 57 (7): 1041–1052. Bibcode:2010GRCEv..57.1041C. doi:10.1007/s10722-010-9546-8. ISSN 0925-9864. S2CID 11915388.
  35. 1 2 "Land of Frankincense". UNESCO World Heritage. Archived from the original on 2024-05-23. Retrieved 2024-06-11.
  36. ↑ Ernst E (December 2008). "Frankincense: systematic review". BMJ. 337 (dec17 2) a2813. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2813. PMC 2605614. PMID 19091760.
  37. ↑ "Frankincense, Indian; Boswellia serrata, Roxb". Drugs.com. 16 August 2024. Retrieved 2 November 2024.
  38. ↑ Kapiec, Katarzyna (28 December 2018). "The Sacred Scents: Examining the Connection Between the ʿntjw and sfṯ in the Context of the Early Eighteenth Dynasty Temples". Études et Travaux (31): 195. doi:10.12775/EtudTrav.31.011. Retrieved 17 September 2026.
  39. ↑ Germer, Renate (2008). Handbuch der Altägyptischen Heilpflanzen. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 45. ISBN 9783447056328.
  40. ↑ Quack, Joachim Friedrich (2018). "Incense, the Alphabet and Other Elements. On the Movement of Persons, Commodities and Ideas between Egypt and the Southern Red Sea Region". In Jaspert, Nikolas; Kolditz, Sebastian (eds.). Entre mers—Outre-mer: Spaces, Modes and Agents of Indo-Mediterranean Connectivity. Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing. pp. 33–59. ISBN 978-3-946054-81-8.
  41. 1 2 Marshall, S. (20 December 2003). "Frankincense: Festive pharmacognosy". Pharmaceutical Journal. 271: 862–864. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  42. ↑ Diamandopoulos, Athanasios A. (October 1996). "Organic and inorganic cosmetics in the preclassical Eastern Mediterranean". International Journal of Dermatology. 35 (10): 751–756. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4362.1996.tb00659.x. ISSN 0011-9059.
  43. ↑ The Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. VI, Funk and Wagnalls Company: New York 1904, p. 568
  44. ↑ Bower A (1734–1747). An Universal History, from the Earliest Account of Time to the Present; Compiled from Original Authors and Illustrated with Maps, Cuts, Notes, Chronological and other Tables (part i). Vol. 16. London. p. 257.
  45. ↑ Basar S, Koch A, König WA (September 2001). "A verticillane-type diterpene from Boswellia carterii essential oil". Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 16 (5): 315–8. doi:10.1002/ffj.992.
  46. ↑ Frank A, Unger M (April 2006). "Analysis of frankincense from various Boswellia species with inhibitory activity on human drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry after automated on-line extraction". Journal of Chromatography A. 1112 (1–2): 255–62. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2005.11.116. PMID 16364338.
  47. ↑ "Frankincense oil". Scents and Flavors. 2026. Retrieved 3 April 2026.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Woolley CL, Suhail MM, Smith BL, Boren KE, Taylor LC, Schreuder MF, et al. (October 2012). "Chemical differentiation of Boswellia sacra and Boswellia carterii essential oils by gas chromatography and chiral gas chromatography-mass spectrometry". Journal of Chromatography A. 1261: 158–63. doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.073. PMID 22835693.
  • Müller WW (1978). "Weihrauch: Ein arabisches Produkt und seine Bedeutung in der Antike". Pauly-Wissowas Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (15). Munich: Alfred Druckenmüller Verlag: 700–777.
  • Groom N (1981). Frankincense & Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. International Book Centre, Incorporated. ISBN 0-86685-593-9.
  • Maloney GA (1997). Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh: An Introduction to Eastern Christian Spirituality. Crossroads Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8245-1616-8.
[edit]
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