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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Old Lithuanians)
Lithuanians
Ancient Lithuanian lands alongside other Baltic
territories in the 11th–early 13th centuries
Regions with significant populations
Eastern Lithuania
Languages
Old Lithuanian
Religion
Lithuanian paganism
Related ethnic groups
Latgalians, Yotvingians, Selonians

The Lithuanians or Old Lithuanians (Latin: Letwini;[1]:33 Low German: Lettowen;[2] Old East Slavic: Литъва, Литва;[3][a] Old Swedish: lättugha;[4] modern Lithuanian: senlietuviai[5]) were one of the largest East Baltic tribes, inhabiting present-day Eastern Lithuania in the 5th–13th centuries.[6] Following the Northern Crusades, the ancient Lithuanians began gradually assimilating other neighbouring Baltic tribes, becoming the primary progenitor group of modern Lithuanians.

History

[edit]

Origin and trade

[edit]

It is believed that ancient Lithuania initially covered around 80,000 km2 and was home to around 300,000 inhabitants, most of them living as farmers.[7] Traditionally historians divide the area into six attested lands – Nalšia, Deltuva, Upytė, Lietuva, Neris and Deremela,[b] with Lietuva (Lethowia)[1]:33 passing on its name to the entire country. There was a sevenfth land laying in between Neris, Merkinė and Neman rivers but no records of its name remain.[8] Ancient Lithuania stretched from the middle reaches of Neman to the Southeast of Šventoji.

Because of the three archaeological cultures in Lithuania, some scholars divide the Lithuanian ethnos into three cultural groups – Samogitians (Western), Aukštaitians[c] (Central) and Lithuanians (Eastern). Traditionally, the Samogitian tribe is included within the broader Lithuanian ethnos as suggested by historical accounts, dividing Lithuania into two parts – Austechia (Aukštaitija) and Samogitia (Žemaitija)[1]:1[9] – but their origins are a subject of ongoing debate. Linguist Jūratė Sofija Laučiūtė argues that prior to their assimilation, ancient Samogitians were a different tribe from the Lithuanians, which is evinced by certain linguistic features not explainable by phonetics alone, such as the ending -ou <*-ou of masculine nouns in the genitive form (e.g. Samogitian velkou, Lithuanian vilkui, meaning (dat) 'wolf'). Valdemaras Šimėnas suggests that both culturally and linguistically ancient Samogitians were closer to Curonians, Semigallians and Selonians than to the Lithuanians.[10] The Samogitians formed a tribal union with the Lithuanians, which was an ongoing process starting in c. 1180s and culminating by the early 13th century. Its centre was in present-day south-eastern Lithuania.[11] Samogitia also maintained its own distinct land confederation, capable of withstanding external military aggression as shown during the Battle of Saulė in 1236, yet over time it became increasingly dependent on Lithuania, as demonstrated by the Lithuanian campaign through its territory into Courland (c. 1244–45) or the Samogitian–Order alliance against the Lithuanians (1248), formed to resist their attempts at asserting control over northern Samogitia, by then the last part of the region not under their direct rule.[12]

Lithuania proper consisted of two archaeological cultural areas – Central and Eastern – with the former never becoming a continuous ethnopolitical unit.[1]:30 Though contested, based on the spread of cremation and West Baltic acculturation, it is believed that the Aukštaitians were a consequence of westward Lithuanian migration into a Samogitian heterogeneous cultural zone, driven by Slavic expansion.[13][14] Central Lithuanian culture existed in the 6th–12th centuries, reaching its prosperity in the 9th–11th centuries. Burial practices and ceramics indicate that Central Lithuania was affected by the West Baltic cultures and belonged to the zone of maritime influence. Recent archaeological research reveals that Vikings navigated the Neman River, engaging in trade with the local populations, whereas Kaunas emerged as a significant economic and political trading centre.[15] The Lithuanians were familiar with surrounding waterways around the Baltic Sea and the Curonian Lagoon, initially possessing fluvial watercraft.[16]:12 By the early 13th century, Lithuanian ships ventured into the Baltic Sea and reached the shores of Gotland where they would trade goods such as amber, honey, beeswax, flax, hemp or ash – this lasted until 1229 when Pope Gregory IX restricted the rights of traders and banned the practice of selling goods to the heathens.[16]:28 In the 12th–13th centuries, Eastern Lithuania witnessed notable social and economic development, fostering advancements in trade, artisanship and political stability. In contrast, the western Baltic regions experienced a decline, as indicated by the substantially greater number of archaeological monetary finds in Eastern Lithuania.[17]

In the 4th–8th centuries, with the loss of Roman commerce and coins, Lithuania and other Baltic lands had no known currency and are believed to have been trading in kind.[18] As of the 8th century, silver dirhams were gradually introduced to the region by either neighbouring or Arabic merchants,[19] possibly reaching Eastern Lithuania through the Daugava River and southern Rus'.[20]:59 From the 10th century onward, forged and smelted silver alloys of Scandinavian origin were brought to Lithuania and used as currency or jewellery.[20]:4 In the mid-12th century, once their production abroad has fallen out of favour, ancient Lithuanians began producing their own currency – long silver ingots with cut marks – commonly known as kapas or ilgasis.[20]:105

Society and culture

[edit]

Archaeologist Laurynas Kurila believes that by the 5th century, the Lithuanians began adopting a war-based societal model found in military democracies.[21] The tribal society was governed following the customary law and was based on a hierarchical structure consisting of four divisions – a duke, soldiers, free peasants (laukininkai) and slaves (šeimynykščiai). By the 9th century, a chieftain gradually became known as kunigas. Commencing in the 12th century, each ruler began to govern a particular land through hereditary succession and adopting the title kunigaikštis.[22]

In ancient Lithuanian culture, religious suicide was practised and likely common. The Lithuanians were known to engage in acts of honour suicide by sacrificing themselves to their gods or after defeat in battle.[23] In addition, Lithuanian women would take their own lives following the loss of their husbands. The latter custom was attested by Henry of Latvia when 50 Lithuanian wives of the defeated warriors chose to hang themselves to reunite with them in the afterlife.[24]:51–52 In a letter from Pope Honorius III written in 1218, it is said that the Lithuanians practice human sacrifice of war captives to their gods.[25]

The deceased tribespeople were buried in the ground and by the 7th–8th centuries, cremation became widespread throughout the area.[26]:148 They were positioned with men's heads facing West and women's heads facing East.[26]:115 The Lithuanians dedicated separate burial mounds to the riding horses, sometimes half of an entire kurgan.[27]:15 The Lithuanians had the custom of purposely breaking weapons as well as jewellery when burning the deceased – this was probably done to send these items to the afterlife. They also produced small axes only used during funeral rites.[28]

Weaponry

[edit]

Lithuanian soldiers were equipped with stabbing spears with socketed spearheads, throwing spears with hafted spearheads as well as shields as early as the 5th century. Both types of spears have been in use until the 9th century whereas the most recent shields date to the 8th century.[27]:39–40 From the late 5th century, the Lithuanians also possessed ornamented battle axes and, as of the 10th century, they began crafting light, usually adorned, broad-bladed battle axes.[29] The findings in Varliškis and Čiobiškis burial mounds suggest that axes with narrow blades and blunt ends were also used as weapons until the 10th–11th century.[30]:14 Both one-edged and two-edged swords are rarely found as they were probably expensive to produce and only wealthy chieftains could obtain them.[27]:40 Around the 11th–12th century, the first chainmail armour started to appear.[27]:38

Warfare

[edit]

11th century

[edit]

The Lithuanians were known as fierce warriors who constantly raided neighbouring lands, predominantly in Northeastern Europe,[31] seeking to capture people, cattle and horses.[32] The Kievan Rus’ chronicles attest that Yaroslav the Wise led a campaign against the Lithuanians in the 1040s, after which they allegedly paid tribute. Nonetheless, the exact date, outcome, and long-term implications of said attack remain unclear, as the Russian Primary Chronicle and the Novgorod First Chronicle offer conflicting dates (1040 and 1044, respectively),[33] whereas a Kievan victory is only explicitly mentioned in Khlebnikov’s version of events.[34] Birchbark manuscript 590 mentions a Lithuanian military campaign against Karelia in c. 1060–80.[35] A semi-legendary account from the Bychowiec Chronicle claims they and the Samogitians carried out a joint punitive raid against Vseslav of Polotsk, sacking Braslaw and taking many captives in 1065.[36] In the 11th century, the Lithuanians were recorded crossing the Orsha River and devastating surrounding locations.[37]

A page from the Novgorod First Chronicle describing the Lithuanian campaign of 1183.

12th century

[edit]

In c. 1131–32, Mstislav I of Kiev launched a campaign against Lithuania, but when the Kievans were heading back, the Lithuanians retaliated by annihilating one of their detachments.[38][39]:153 By 1158, Lithuania was acting as a sovereign early feudal proto-state.[40] From 1159 to 1162, the Lithuanians leveraged political infighting in neighbouring Polotsk by aiding Prince Volodar Glebovich in his bid to depose Prince Rogvolod Vasily. They joined Polotsk as allies in 1180 to lay siege to Drutsk,[41] yet from this decade onwards, their independent military campaigns surged in prominence. In 1183, the Novgorod First Chronicle mentions a Lithuanian attack on Pskov, marking the start of numerous raids against it.[42] A record from The Tale of Igor’s Campaign compares the devastating impact of the Lithuanian incursions to that of the Cumans.[43] Further incursions in 1185–86 led to the Lithuanians taking many Livonian captives,[44] prompting the Livs to seek protection from Bishop Meinhard.[39]:166 In 1187, their forces targeted the vicinity of Polotsk, resulting in the death of Iziaslav.[31] In 1188, the Lithuanians made an alliance with the Swedes, who already had a kingdom, against Novgorod.[33] Their plundering continued as they raided Karelia in 1191[43] as well as the countryside of Velikiye Luki in 1198.[31] Russa, a Novgorodian town south of Lake Ilmen, was likely fortified the following year in response to these raids.[42]

13th century

[edit]

In 1200, the Lithuanians devastated the lands near Lovat, doing "whatever they pleased".[31] In 1201–02, they started a war raid against Semigallia, yet their plans were disrupted by an attack of the Principality of Polotsk on Lithuania itself.[43] In 1203, they allied with the Principality of Jersika and stormed Riga, taking the livestock of its residents.[45]:65 In 1205, 2,000 Lithuanians led by Duke Žvelgaitis[30]:32 marched into Estonia and returned with "countless captives [possibly more than 1,000 Estonians] and an ineffable number of cattle and horses."[46] However, their victorious return with booty and prisoners of war was marred by an ambush of the allied Semigallian and German forces.[24]:51[30]:33 On Christmas Day 1207, they stormed Treiden (Turaida), Livonia, and looted the countryside, including the house of a priest.[30]:33[47] The raiders also took prisoners, most of whom were women and children.[32] In 1208, Semigallians and Germans invaded Lithuania, only to find its villages abandoned. On their way back home, the enemy were then attacked by Lithuanian raiders who defeated them and took many captives.[30]:33–34 In 1209, Henry of Latvia described the Lithuanians as ruthless people whose neighbours lived in constant fear and endured their relentless raids:

At that time, the Lithuanians so dominated over all the tribes living in these [neighbouring] lands, be they Christians or heathens, that few dared to live in their villages, especially the Latgalians who dared the least. Leaving their homes deserted, they always sought hideouts in the dark woods, but even so, they could not escape them because [the Lithuanians], constantly lurking in the forests, would capture and kill them, take others as captives, bring them to their land, and strip them of all their belongings. And Ruthenians fled through the woods and villages from the Lithuanians, even if they were few, as hares flee from a hunter, and the Livs and the Latgalians became food and fodder for the Lithuanians as sheep without a shepherd, trapped among a pack of wolves.[39]:174

The frequency of certain raids in the 1210s is likely related to the connections shared by the Lithuanians and Estonians, who at times might have collaborated with one another – during a Novgorodian invasion of an Estonian vicinity, the Lithuanians invaded Novgorod.[48] In the summer of 1210, they formed an alliance with the Curonians, Estonians, Livs, Polotskians and Semigallians against the Germans. However, only the Lithuanians and Curonians took military action, with the former besieging Kukenois (Koknese) and the latter attacking Riga.[49] In 1212, ancient Lithuanians returned to Estonia again and pillaged Sakala.[30]:32 The following year, they raided Lennewarden (Lielvārde)[39]:183 and burnt down Pskov.[31] In 1219, Ösel (Saaremaa) faced a brutal onslaught by 1,500 Lithuanian raiders who landed in Sõrve,[50] ravaged the island and killed its locals:

Deluded by their bravery / They went through all the land [...] / All paths, and also tracks / Were covered rich in blood [...] / They taught folk how to die / Both men and women / If only they have failed to flee.[46]

Baltic tribes listed in the Danish Census Book (Liber Census Daniae)[51]

Frequent campaigns against Novgorod by the Lithuanians in 1217, 1218, 1223, 1224, 1226, 1230, and 1234 severely weakened the Novgorodians as they struggled to mount effective defences or swift counter-attacks.[52]:11 The increased focus on the Rus’ principalities was also facilitated by making a truce with Riga in 1226, after which 7,000 Lithuanian soldiers sacked Torzhok and Toropets.[52]:15 From the 1230s, following the conquest of other neighbouring tribes, the Christian military orders in both the north and southwest began posing an existential threat to the Lithuanians. As of 1231, the Danish Census Book mentions Lithuania (Littonia) as well as many other Baltic lands paying tribute to the Danes, who ultimately did not succeed in subjugating them.[53] As recounted by Franciscan scholar Bartholomaeus Anglicus in his c. 1240 work On the Properties of Things (De proprietatibus rerum), efforts to subdue the Lithuanians were oftentimes forestalled by their bellicose nature and impassable seasonal mires:

Lithuania of Scythia is a province whose people are called the Lithuanians, a robust and strong, warlike and fierce folk. Furthermore, Lithuania is a region whose soil is fertile, marshy in many places, and greatly wooded, well-watered by rivers and streams, abounding with wild beasts and livestock. It is fortified by groves and wetlands, having few other defences besides rivers, woods, and fens. And so in summer that region can scarcely be captured, save only in winter, when waters and rivers turn to ice.[54]

In late 1244, the Curonians, Samogitians and Lithuanians stormed Amboten Castle (Embūte), which the Livonian Order had taken over the previous year.[55] In c. 1245–47, seeking to avenge his brother, Duke Lengvenis led his men against the Livonian knights in Wenden Castle (Cēsis), defeating them and taking the severed head of Commander Heinrich von Sessendorp as a trophy – the latter was made to be carried by a captive back to Lithuania, where it was then offered to the gods.[45]:126–127 The Novgorod Fourth Chronicle mentions that the Lithuanians killed Mikhail Khorobrit during the Battle of Protva in 1248.[56]

In July 1251, with Mindaugas securing a crown from the pope, Lithuania was granted the status of a Catholic kingdom and thus became the Kingdom of Lithuania. Nonetheless, the period of peace between Lithuania and the Crusader states was short-lived. In 1258–59, despite withstanding a devastating Mongolian incursion, Lithuania was in political turmoil, with its pro-pagan noblemen pushing for a renouncement of their alliance with the Livonian Order and securing favourable relations with the Tatars instead.[57]

In 1260, crusaders from Livonia and Prussia joined forces and launched a large campaign towards Karšuva, Samogitia, but upon learning about a Samogitian–Lithuanian incursion into their lands, they turned north and met them near Libau (Liepāja), resulting in the Battle of Durbė. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describes a devastating defeat of the crusaders, amongst them Landmeister Burkhard von Hornhausen and Marshal Heinrich Botel,[58] whereas Erik’s Chronicle recounts how Junker Karl Ulfsson refused to retreat, meeting his cruel fate at the hands of the Lithuanians.[59]

In 1263, the Lithuanians sacked Pernau (Pärnu) and burned down its newly built Osilian-Maritimian cathedral city, Perona.[60] Unhindered, they marched further north and attacked Wiek (Läänemaa) as the Livonian knights who were protecting this land had been sent away to Courland.[61] In 1270, the Battle of Karuse on frozen ice near the island of Mohn (Muhu) ensued: after returning from a raid, the Lithuanians were unexpectedly attacked by the Livonian Brothers. However, they emerged victorious against the knights, killing Master Otto von Lutterberg.[62] According to Peter of Dusburg, the Knight Commander of Ragnit Ludwig von Liebenzell sailed to Aukštaitija and "took part in many laudable battles in many campaigns at sea" against the Lithuanians from 1294 to 1300.[63] In 1295, Teutonic Knights sailed the Neman River, pillaging a nearby Lithuanian village and taking captives on the way, but were then attacked by Lithuanian boats. Despite the Lithuanians suffering the loss of 70 warriors, the Crusaders were ultimately defeated, with approximately 30 casualties, including that of Friar Dietrich von Esbek. In the same year, the Lithuanians sailed to the Neman island near Ragnit (Neman), preying on horses and cattle.[64] In 1296–97, they stormed German-colonised Culm (Chełmno) and sacked five villages near Golub Castle, capturing or slaughtering many Christians.[45]:195

Throughout the Northern Crusades, the majority of Baltic tribes suffered tremendous casualties in conflicts and revolts against their conquerors. The Lithuanians, who succeeded in establishing a state, gradually assimilated those residing in its territories. The migration of Baltic peoples who resisted German colonisation and sought refuge in Lithuania also contributed to the ongoing ethnogenesis. Historical records attest that after the destruction of Sidabrė Castle in 1290, 10,000 Semigallians fled to Lithuania.[65] Old Prussians met a similar fate, with many seeking sanctuary in southern Lithuania after the unsuccessful Prussian uprisings.[66] Following the demise of Curonian and Prussian tribal societies, which had acted as the primary Baltic cultural centres for 3,000 years, Lithuania emerged as their successor.[67]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ In Old East Slavic writings, certain ethnonyms, such as Литва (Литъва), were applied for both the location and its people (cf. Голядь 'Galindia', 'Galindians'; Чудь (Чюдь) 'Estonia', 'Estonians').
  2. ↑ The Tale of Igor's Campaign stands as the sole historical record mentioning Deremela, prompting modern scholars to question its existence.
  3. ↑ In academic literature, they are referred to as Aukštaitians (a neologism derived from Aukštaičiai) or upland Lithuanians. The translation highland Lithuanians is not applicable.

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 Baranauskas, Tomas (2006). Aukštaitija XIII–XV amžiuje [Aukštaitija in the 13th–15th Centuries]. In (Eds.), Aukštaičių tapatumo paeiškos [Searches of Aukštaitian Identity] (in Lithuanian). Kaunas: Žiemgalos leidykla. ISBN 9955-434-16-3.
  2. ↑ Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė, Regina (1970). Lietuviai IX–XII amžiais [Lithuanians in the 9th–12th Centuries] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mintis. p. 35. "„Die Lettowen al zu hant, die Sameyten sint genant.“ cf. LRCH 5445"
  3. ↑ Zinkevičius, Zigmas (1987). Lietuvių kalbos istorija: iki pirmųjų raštų [The History of the Lithuanian Language: Before the First Written Works] (Vol. 2) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 11.
  4. ↑ Ljungar, Wilhelm (2022). Till gudz riddara han tha ouer foor. Warfare as Religious Experience in the Swedish Medieval Rhyme Chronicles 1320–1496 [PDF]. Historiska Institutionen Stockholms Universitet. pp. 54–55.
  5. ↑ Grigas, Romualdas (2017) [2007]. Senieji lietuviai ir krikščionybė: tapatybių konfrontacija [The Ancient Lithuanians and Christianity: The Confrontation of Identities]. In (Eds.), Liaudies kultūra [Folk Culture] (in Lithuanian, abstract available in English). Lithuanian National Culture Centre. (6): 7–15. p. 7. ISSN 2669-0403.
  6. ↑ "Baltų gentys. Arealas, laidosena, kostiumas" [Baltic Tribes. Areal, Burials, Clothing] (in Lithuanian). Baltų kelias. Retrieved on 5 February 2025.
  7. ↑ "Lietuva visuomenės valstybės susidarymo išvakarėse. Visuomenė" [Lithuania on the Eve of Societal State Formation. Society] (in Lithuanian). Istorija. Retrieved on 5 February 2025.
  8. ↑ Zabiela, Gintautas (2006). Aukštaitijos žemės [Lands of Aukštaitija]. In (Eds.), Aukštaičių tapatumo paeiškos [Searches of Aukštaitian Identity] (in Lithuanian). Kaunas: Žiemgalos leidykla. pp. 21–26. ISBN 9955-434-16-3.
  9. ↑ Misiūnas, Romuald J., Bater, James H. Prehistory to the 18th Century. Baltic states. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  10. ↑ Kavaliauskas, Antanas (1 January 2018). "Žemaičių kilmės problematika" [The Problematic Nature of Samogitian Origin] (in Lithuanian). Kalvotoji Žemaitija. Retrieved on 5 February 2025.
  11. ↑ Gumuliauskas, Arūnas (2010) [1993]. Lietuva: nuo valstybės susikūrimo iki valstybės atkūrimo [Lithuania: From State Formation to State Restoration] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Debesija. p. 21.
  12. ↑ Almonaitis, Vytenis (1998). Žemaitijos politinė padėtis 1380–1410 metais [The Political Situation of Samogitia in 1380–1410] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vytautas Magnus University Publishing Centre. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-9986-501-27-5.
  13. ↑ Girininkas, Algirdas, Lukoševičius, Olijardas (1997). Lietuvos priešistorė: materialinės ir dvasinės kultūros raida, genčių formavimasis [Lithuanian Prehistory: Development of Material and Spiritual Culture and Tribal Formation] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Agora. p. 153. ISBN 978-9986-633-14-3. "Dalis tyrinėtojų mano, kad nebuvo atskiros aukštaičių genties. Teigiama, esą čia gyvenusius žemaičių protėvius sulietuvino iš rytų atėję lietuviai. [Some researchers believe that a distinct Aukštaitian tribe did not exist. It is claimed that the Samogitian ancestors living here were Lithuanized by the Lithuanians coming from the east.]"
  14. ↑ Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė, Regina (1987). Lietuvių etnogenezė [The Lithuanian Ethnogenesis] (in Lithuanian). pp. 155–156.
  15. ↑ Songaila, Gintaras (2015). Ar vakarų ir rytų baltai turi bendrą politinę istorija? [Do West and East Balts Share a Common Political History?]. In (Eds.), Vėluojanti istorija ar pavėlavę istorikai? [Late History or Late Historians?] (in Lithuanian). p. 17. ISSN 2029-9516.
  16. 1 2 Vaitiekūnas, Stasys (2009). Lithuanians: From Agrarian to Sea Nation? (Historical-Geographical Study). In (Eds.), The Problems of Development and International Cooperation in the Region of the Southern Baltic. Pelpin: Wydawnictwo Bernardinum. ISBN 978-83-7380-819-5.
  17. ↑ Genys, Jonas (2008) [1996]. Stages in the Early Developement of the Lithuanian Town. In (Eds.), Archaeology and History of the Middle Ages (in English, German and French). Series Colloquia. Forlì: Abaco Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-86712-12-5.
  18. ↑ Jurgutis, Vladas (2010) [1996]. Pinigai [Money]. Vilnius: Mintis. p. 62. ISBN 978-5-417-02883-0.
  19. ↑ Michelbertas, Mykolas (2006). Lietuvos pinigai [The Money of Lithuania]. Kaunas: Šviesa. p. 11. ISBN 978-5-430-04551-7.
  20. 1 2 3 Duksa, Zenonas (1981). Pinigai ir jų apyvarta [Money and Its Circulation]. In (Eds.), Lietuvių materialinė kultūra IX–XIII amžiuje [The Lithuanian Material Culture in the 9th–13th Centuries] (Vol. 2). Vilnius: Mokslas.
  21. ↑ Kurila, Laurynas (2009). Socialinė organizacija Rytų Lietuvoje III–XII a. (laidojimo paminklų duomenimis): disertacija [Social Organisation in Eastern Lithuania in the 3rd–12th c. (Based on the Data of Burial Monuments): Dissertation] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vilnius University. p. 138.
  22. ↑ "Kunigai" (in Lithuanian). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia.
  23. ↑ Beresnevičius, Gintaras (2004). Lietuvių religija ir mitologija [Lithuanian Religion and Mythology] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Tyto alba. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-9986-16-389-3.
  24. 1 2 Markevičiūtė, Ramunė (2016). Barbarians Speaking – The Historiographical Theater and Its Effect in Henry of Latvia’s Chronicon Livoniae. Literatūra. Berlin: Free University of Berlin. 58 (3): 43–56. ISSN 0258-0802.
  25. ↑ Dundulienė, Pranė (1991). Lietuvių etnologija [Lithuanian Ethnology] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 206. ISBN 978-5-420-00713-6.
  26. 1 2 Volkaitė-Kulikauskienė, Regina (2001). Lietuva valstybės priešaušriu. Baltų genčių formavimasis [Lithuania at the Dawn of Statehood. The Formation of Baltic Tribes] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vaga. ISBN 978-5-415-01498-9.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Zemenskas, Marius (2013). Lietuvių ginkluotė viduriniajame geležies amžiuje [Lithuanian Weaponry in the Late Middle Iron Age] (in Lithuanian). 3–73. Academia.
  28. ↑ "Senovės lietuvių pomirtinio gyvenimo paslaptys: kokių netikėčiausių daiktų randama kapavietėse?" [The secrets of the ancient Lithuanian afterlife: What surprising items are found in the grave sites?] (in Lithuanian). 7 February 2021. LRT.
  29. ↑ "Kovos kirvis" [Battle axe] (in Lithuanian). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Vitkūnas, Manvydas (2013). Baltų karybos vėlyvajame geležies amžiuje (IX a. – XIII a. pr.) bruožai [Features of Soldiership of Balts in Late Iron Age (9th c. – Beginning of 13th c.)]. Karo archyvas (in Lithuanian, abstract available in French and English). Vilnius: The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania. 28 (1): 8–51, 397–401. ISSN 1392-6489; ISSN 2424-6123.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 Kondratas, Mikalojus (1994). Lietuvių tautos ir valstybės istorija [History of the Lithuanian Nation and the State] (Vol. 1) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Leidybos centras. p. 90. ISBN 978-9986-03-070-6.
  32. 1 2 Korpela, Jukka Jari (2021). Slaves from the North – Finns and Karelians in the East European Slave Trade. Eastern European Slave Trade, 900–1600. Leiden: Brill Publishers (Schöningh). p. 38. ISBN 978-90-04-44719-6.
  33. 1 2 Baranauskas, Tomas (2000). "Knygos „Lietuvos valstybės ištakos“ santrauka" [Summary of the book The Origin of the Lithuanian State] (in Lithuanian). Viduramžių Lietuva. Retrieved 5 February 2025.
  34. ↑ Baranauskas, Tomas (2023). Seniausios žinios apie sūduvius-jotvingius ir jų įvardijimo problema [The Earliest Knowledge about Sudovians-Yotvingians and the Issue of Their Naming]. Lituanistica (in Lithuanian, abstract available in English). 69 (3): 179–194. p. 183. ISSN 0235-716X; eISSN 2424-4716.
  35. ↑ Uino, Pirjo (2011) [1997]. Ancient Karelia: Archeological Studies. Helsinki: Suomen muinaismuistoyhdistys. p. 195. ISBN 978-951-9057-25-5.
  36. ↑ Maksimaitienė, Ona (2007) [1991]. Lietuvos istorinės geografijos ir kartografijos bruožai [Features of Lithuanian Historical Geography and Cartography] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 19. ISBN 978-5-420-00832-4.
  37. ↑ Šadžius, Henrikas (1996). Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija [Lithuanian History of Physical Fitness and Sport] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Margi raštai. p. 14. ISBN 978-9986-09-122-6.
  38. ↑ Čepienė, Irena (2008). Lietuvių etninė kultūra: raidos įžvalgos [The Lithuanian Ethnic Culture: Developmental Insights] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Alma littera. p. 67. ISBN 978-9955-38-224-9.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Baranauskas, Tomas (2000). Lietuvos valstybės ištakos [The Origin of the Lithuanian State] (in Lithuanian, abstract available in English). Vilnius: Vaga. ISBN 5-415-01495-0.
  40. ↑ Jurginis, Juozas (1997). Žemaičiai ir kuršiai XIII a. [Samogitians and Curonians in the 13th Century]. In (Eds.), Vakarų baltai: etnogenezė ir etninė istorija [West Balts: Ethnogenesis and Ethnic History] (in Lithuanian, abstract available in English and Russian). Vilnius: Lithuanian History Institute. p 266. ISBN 978-9986-810-05-6.
  41. ↑ Zabiela, Gintautas (2005). Ikivalstybinis ir baltų genčių sajungų laikotarpis [The Period of Pre-Statehood and Baltic Tribal Unions]. In (Eds.), Lietuvos istorija. Geležies amžius [History of Lithuania. The Iron Age] (Vol. 2) (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Baltos lankos. p. 422. ISBN 978-9955-23-061-8.
  42. 1 2 Lelis, L. Arnold (2005). The View from the Northwest: The Chronicle of Novgorod as the Mirror of Local Experience of Rus' History, 1016-1333. Leiden: Brill Publishers (Schöningh). 32: 389–399. p. 393. ISSN 0094-288X; eISSN 1876-3316.
  43. 1 2 3 Baranauskas, Tomas. "Kaip kūrėsi Lietuvos valstybė?" [How did the Lithuanian state form?] (in Lithuanian). Lietuvos aidas. Retrieved 5 February 2025.
  44. ↑ Jurginis, Juozas (1992). Lietuvių epas: didvyriai, karvedžiai, kunigaikščiai [Epic of the Lithuanians: Heroes, Commanders, Dukes] (in Lithuanian). p. 14. ISBN 978-5-430-01363-9
  45. 1 2 3 Jurginis, Juozas (1964). Lietuvių karas su kryžiuočiais [Lithuanian War With the Teutonic Knights] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mintis.
  46. 1 2 Baronas, Darius (28 March 2014). "LDK istorija: Prekyba belaisviais – pajamų šaltinis" [History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Trade in captives — source of income] (in Lithuanian). 15min. Retrieved 5 February 2025.
  47. ↑ Vyšniauskaitė, Angelė (1994). Lietuviai IX a.–XIX a. vidurio istoriniuose šaltiniuose [Lithuanians in the Historical Sources of the 9th–mid-19th Centuries] (in Lithuanian). p. 9. ISBN 978-5-420-01268-0.
  48. ↑ Péderi, Tamás (2017). View of the Role of Economy in the Early Wars of Novgorod. Specimina Nova Pars Prima Sectio Mediaevalis IX. Pécs: University of Pécs. 9: 123–134. p. 132. ISSN 1588-8002; eISSN 3057-8051.
  49. ↑ Gudavičius, Edvardas (2009) [1989]. Kryžiaus karai Pabaltijyje ir Lietuva XIII amžiuje [The Crusades in the Baltic and Lithuania in the 13th Century] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 26. ISBN 978-5-420-00241-4; ISBN 5-420-00241-8.
  50. ↑ Rullingo, Ago (2001). Muhumaa: loodus, aeg, inimene [Muhu: Nature, Time, Person] (in Estonian). Tallinn: Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus. p. 151. ISBN 978-9985-70-091-4.
  51. ↑ Kong Valdemars Jordebog. Rigsarkivet. C 8. fol. 41v [Image 82].
  52. 1 2 Lituanistica (in French, German, Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. The Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. 1990.
  53. ↑ Birgelis, Sigitas (2009). Terra Jatwezenorum [The Land of the Yotvingians] (in Lithuanian, English and Polish). Puńsk: Aušra. p. 8. ISSN 2080-7589.
  54. ↑ Vėlius, Norbertas (1996). Baltų religijos ir mitologijos šaltiniai. Nuo seniausių laikų iki XV amžiaus pabaigos [Sources of Baltic Religion and Mythology. From the Oldest Times to the End of the 15th Century] (Vol. 1) (in Lithuanian and Latin). Vilnius: The Science and Encyclopedia Publishers. pp. 230–231. ISBN 978-5-420-01353-3.
  55. ↑ "Kuršiai" [Curonians] (in Lithuanian). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 5 February 2025.
  56. ↑ Fennell Illingworth, John Lister (1983). The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304. London: Pearson Longman. p. 103. ISBN 0-582-48150-3.
  57. ↑ Baronas, Darius (2006). The Encounter Between Forest Lithuanians and Steppe Tatars in the Time of Mindaugas. Lithuanian Historical Studies. Leiden: Brill Publishers (Schöningh). ISSN 1392-2343.
  58. ↑ Varakauskas, Rokas (2007) [1982]. Lietuvos ir Livonijos santykiai XIII–XVI a. [The Relations of Lithuania and Livonia in the 13th–16th Centuries] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslas. p. 64.
  59. ↑ Carlquist, Erik, et al. (2019). Erikskrönikan: En medeltida krönika i nusvensk version [Erik’s Chronicle: A Medieval Chronicle in a Modern Swedish Version] (in Swedish). Lund: Nordic Academic Press. ISBN 978-91-88909-30-5; eISBN 978-91-88909-31-2.
  60. ↑ Vunk, Aldur (2022). The Land Between Pärnu and Salaca – a Contact or Border Zone for Estonian and Livonian-Speaking People? Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri (abstract available in Estonian and Livonian). Pärnu: University of Tartu Press. 13 (1): 283–306. p. 287. ISSN 1736-8987; eISSN 2228-1339.
  61. ↑ Hvostov, Andrei (2005). Mõtteline Eesti [Thinking Estonia] (in Estonian). Tallinn: Eesti Ekspressi Kirjastuse. p. 78. ISBN 978-9985-9571-2-7.
  62. ↑ "Karusės mūšis" [Battle of Karuse] (in Lithuanian). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia.
  63. ↑ The Chronicle of Prussia by Nicolaus von Jeroschin – A History of the Teutonic Knights in Prussia, 1190–1331. Translated by Fischer, Mary. Surrey: Ashley Publishing Limited. 2010, p. 227.
  64. ↑ Baronas, Darius (2019). Lietuvos didžiojo kunigaikščio valdžia prie Nemuno 1283–1410 m.: karinis aspektas [The Power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania on the River of Nemunas, 1283–1410: The Military Aspect]. Acta Historica Universitatis Klaipedensis (in Lithuanian, abstract available in English). 39: 143–165. p. 152. ISSN 1392-4095; ISSN 2351-6526.
  65. ↑ Butkus, Alvydas (1995). Latviai [Latvians] (in Lithuanian). Kaunas: Aesti. p. 16. ISBN 978-9986-9034-0-6.
  66. ↑ "Prūsai" [Old Prussians] (in Lithuanian). Universal Lithuanian Encyclopedia.
  67. ↑ "Prūsų gyvenimas" [The Life of the Old Prussians] (in Lithuanian). Encyclopedia of Minor Lithuania.
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