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Jakarta

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(Redirected from Jayakarta)

Jakarta
Special capital region
Special Capital Region of Jakarta
Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta
Selamat Datang Monument
Jakarta CBD
Jakarta Old Town
Merdeka Palace
Monas
Official seal of Jakarta
Coat of arms
Nickname: 
The Big Durian[1]
Motto: 
Jaya Raya (Sanskrit)
"Victorious and Great"
Map
Interactive map of Jakarta
Jakarta is located in Java
Jakarta
Jakarta
Location in Java, Indonesia, and Asia
Jakarta is located in Indonesia
Jakarta
Jakarta
Jakarta (Indonesia)
Jakarta is located in Asia
Jakarta
Jakarta
Jakarta (Asia)
Coordinates: 6°11′S 106°50′E / 6.18°S 106.83°E / -6.18; 106.83
Country Indonesia
Administrative section
Metropolitan areaJabodetabek
Foundation
(as Jayakarta)		22 June 1527; 499 years ago (1527-06-22)[2]
Creation
(as Batavia)		30 May 1619; 407 years ago (1619-05-30)[3]
Province status18 January 1957; 69 years ago (1957-01-18)[4]
Government
 • TypeSpecial administrative region
 • BodySpecial Capital Region of Jakarta Provincial Government
 • GovernorPramono Anung (PDI-P)
 • Vice GovernorRano Karno
 • LegislatureJakarta Regional House of Representatives (DPRD)
Area
662 km2 (256 sq mi)
 • Metro
6,977 km2 (2,694 sq mi)
Elevation
8 m (26 ft)
Population
 (mid 2025)[5]
11,010,514
 • Rank1st
 • Density16,600/km2 (43,100/sq mi)
 • Metro
[6]
41,914,000
 • Metro density6,007/km2 (15,560/sq mi)
DemonymJakartan
GDP (nominal, 2023)
[7]
 • Special capital region
  • Rp 3,926.153 trillion
  • US$ 238.310 billion
 • Per capita
  • Rp 367.687 million
  • US$ 22,317
Time zoneUTC+07:00 (WIB)
Postal codes
  • 10110–14540
  • 19110–19130
Area code+62 21
ISO 3166 codeID-JK
Vehicle registrationB
HDI (2024)Increase 0.850[8] (1st) – very high
Websitewww.jakarta.go.id Edit this at Wikidata

Jakarta,[a] officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta,[b] is the capital and largest city of Indonesia, with administrative status equivalent to a province. It lies on the northwestern coast of Java, borders the provinces of West Java and Banten, and faces the Java Sea to the north. Jakarta itself covers about 662 square kilometres (256 square miles), but the wider Jakarta metropolitan area—locally known as Jabodetabek—is among the largest urban agglomerations in the world by area. By population, Greater Jakarta is the most populous urban area in the world with a population of over 40 million. Jakarta is Indonesia's political, economic, and cultural centre and contains many national institutions, corporate headquarters, and the secretariat of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

The area that is now Jakarta has been inhabited since at least the early centuries of the Common Era and was long associated with Sunda Kelapa, the port of the Sunda Kingdom. In 1527, the settlement was renamed Jayakarta after being captured by forces of the Demak Sultanate. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) seized the city in 1619 and rebuilt it as Batavia, which served as the centre of VOC power and subsequently of Dutch colonial rule in the Indonesian archipelago for more than three centuries. After the Japanese occupation during the Second World War and Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945, the city took the name Jakarta and became the capital of the new republic.

The Globalization and World Cities Research Network classifies Jakarta as an alpha world city. It is Indonesia's main financial and commercial centre and one of Southeast Asia's largest urban economies. Its economy is concentrated in finance, trade, business services, media, and international diplomacy. Rapid urbanisation since the mid-20th century expanded Jakarta into a metropolitan region and drew migrants from across Indonesia.

Jakarta has no ethnic majority. Its population includes large communities of Javanese, Betawi, Sundanese, Chinese Indonesians, and migrants from many other parts of Indonesia. Indonesian is the official language and the main language of public life, while Betawi culture grew out of the mixing of local, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and European influences during the colonial period. Jakarta has persistent urban problems, including traffic congestion, air pollution, flooding, and land subsidence, which helped prompt the national government's decision to relocate Indonesia's future capital to Nusantara in East Kalimantan.

Etymology

[edit]

The area now known as Jakarta has had several names. During the period of the Sunda Kingdom, its harbour was known as Kalapa or Sunda Kalapa, one of the kingdom's principal ports on the north coast of western Java.[9] A 16th-century account by Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires referred to the harbour as Calapa.[10]

The name Jayakarta is traditionally linked to the conquest of Kalapa in 1527 by Islamic forces said to have been led by Fatahillah, but surviving records do not confirm that he renamed the settlement.[2] The name is of Sanskrit roots and translates to "victory" or "victorious deed". Early European sources recorded related forms including Iacarta, Xacatra, and Jacatra.[11][10][12]

After the Dutch East India Company (VOC) seized and destroyed Jayakarta in 1619, it rebuilt the settlement as Batavia, named for the Batavi, a Germanic people regarded by the Dutch as their ancestors.[13] Batavia remained the city's name until the Japanese occupation in 1942, when the authorities renamed it Jakarta and used the designation Jakaruta Tokubetsu-shi (Japanese: ジャカルタ特別市, lit. 'Jakarta Special Municipality').[14][12] Following Indonesian independence, Jakarta became the city's formal name.[12]

History

[edit]

Early settlements and Sunda Kelapa

[edit]
Tall, weathered rectangular stone monument displayed upright in a museum, with historical exhibits visible behind it.
Luso-Sundanese padrão, a monument commemorating a treaty between the Portuguese Empire and the Sunda Kingdom

The Buni culture was a prehistoric pottery culture found in the coastal areas of northern and western Java. It is dated to roughly 400 BC–AD 100, with evidence suggesting that it may have continued until about AD 500.[15] Written evidence from this period includes the mid-fifth-century Tugu inscription, found near Tanjung Priok in present-day North Jakarta. The inscription mentions the Candrabhaga and Gomati waterways and mentions a King Purnawarman dugging the Gomati river. But it is unclear who was responsible for the Candrabhaga or how the two projects were related.[16]

By the 10th century, the Sunda Kingdom had emerged in western Java and ruled the area around present-day Jakarta.[17] The Chinese work Chu-fan-chi describes Sin-t'o as having a harbour and producing pepper,[18] with the work's translators Friedrich Hirth and William Woodville Rockhill identifying the place meant as Sunda in western Java.[19] By the early 16th century, Kalapa was one of the Sunda Kingdom's leading ports.[17] Pires described it as Sunda's most important trading port, drawing ships from Sumatra, Malacca, Java and elsewhere.[10]

In March 1513, the Portuguese captain at Malacca sent four ships to Java to obtain spices.[20] The Sunda Kingdom concluded a treaty with Portugal on 21 August 1522.[10] It allowed the Portuguese to build a fortress at Kalapa,[10] as Sunda sought Portuguese support amid pressure from the sultanates of Cirebon and Demak.[21][22] In 1527, Islamic forces captured Kalapa, but sources differ over whether Fatahillah or Sunan Gunung Jati led the conquest.[11][22] After the conquest, Kalapa became a dependency of the Banten Sultanate and was recorded in foreign sources as Iacarta, Xacatra or Jacatra. Banten later developed into a major maritime power in western Java.[11][22]

Batavia under Dutch rule

[edit]
Historical illustration of a waterfront gate beside a canal, with groups of people on the shore, small boats on the water, and a wooden bridge spanning the canal.
The Nieuwe Poort in Batavia, 1682

In the early 17th century, Jayakarta was under Banten's control and became an object of rivalry between Dutch (VOC) and English (EIC) trading interests.[23] Following a siege, Dutch naval officer Jan Pieterszoon Coen returned with reinforcements in May 1619, overran Jayakarta and burned the royal residence.[24] The VOC established its Asian headquarters on the site and subsequently named the settlement Batavia.[25][3][24]

Batavia developed as a walled canal city on the low coastal plain at the mouth of the Ciliwung river.[26] However, the canals flowed poorly and accumulated sediment, and rapid coastal silting contributed to unhealthy conditions.[27] After the 1730s, Batavia became markedly less healthy, and wealthy residents increasingly moved away from the old town.[28]

Despite these health problems, Batavia remained the VOC's main administrative centre in Asia and an important trading port.[25][3] Chinese residents were involved in Batavia's trade, agriculture, crafts, and construction, and lived both within the city and in the surrounding countryside (Ommelanden).[29][30] In 1740, unrest among Chinese labourers in the Ommelanden and the VOC's response escalated into a massacre of Chinese residents in Batavia.[31][32] After the massacre, Chinese settlement began settling outside the city walls. In March 1741, the VOC designated a Chinese quarter at Diestpoort, south of Batavia, in an area later known as Glodok.[31][33]

By the early 19th century, residents were moving away from the unhealthy old town, and the move to Weltevreden (present-day Central Jakarta) sped up Batavia's southward growth.[3][34] Weltevreden developed around government buildings and spacious residences with gardens, while the lower old town remained a commercial district that included the Chinese quarter.[35] Subsequent growth extended Batavia southward to Menteng and incorporated Meester Cornelis (present-day Jatinegara).[35] In March 1942, Dutch forces surrendered Batavia to Japan, and the Japanese occupation authorities renamed the city Jakarta.[12][3]

Jakarta in independent Indonesia

[edit]
Black-and-white photograph of Sukarno in white clothing and a black peci, standing before a crowd and reading from a paper, with men flanking him.
Sukarno reading the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence at Jalan Pegangsaan Timur No. 56, Menteng

Indonesia's independence was proclaimed in Jakarta on 17 August 1945.[36] During the first months of the Indonesian National Revolution, authority in Jakarta was contested among Indonesian, Japanese and Dutch officials. British forces intervened to restore order and a Dutch political takeover was initially blocked by the Allies.[37] As the British consolidated control of Jakarta, the Republican government moved to Yogyakarta, which became its capital in early 1946.[38] Jakarta was made the capital again in 1950 after the federal United States of Indonesia was replaced by the unitary republic of Indonesia.[39]

Under first President Sukarno, Jakarta became the focus of major nation-building projects, some of which were part of preparations for the Asian Games in 1962. These projects included the National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, Sarinah, the Senayan sports complex, and the Thamrin–Sudirman axis.[40][41] In 1964, new legislation formally reaffirmed the Special Capital Region of Jakarta as Indonesia's capital.[42]

The violence and political upheaval of 1965-66 marked General Suharto's rise to power and the beginning of the New Order.[43] Under Governor Ali Sadikin (1966–77), Jakarta expanded the Kampung Improvement Program to improve basic services in dense kampungs, but modernisation also displaced some poor neighbourhoods.[44][45] From the 1980s, deregulation and greater private and foreign investment accelerated high-rise construction along Thamrin-Sudirman and large industrial, commercial and residential projects on the metropolitan outskirts.[46]

The Asian financial crisis in 1997–98 intensified student protests and widespread violence in Jakarta. After mounting political pressure, Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.[47] In the Reformasi era, decentralisation changed Jakarta's local government, and residents directly elected the governor for the first time in 2007.[48] In 2022, the central government laid the legal groundwork for moving the national capital from Jakarta to Nusantara. The capital's legal functions remain in Jakarta until a presidential decree formally transfers them to Nusantara.[49]

Geography

[edit]
A vast pale-gray urban area spreads inland from the north coast of Java, surrounded by greener rural land and mountains to the south, with the Java Sea at the top.
Satellite image of the Jakarta metropolitan area and the surrounding western Java, acquired by Sentinel-2.

Jakarta covers about 662 square kilometres (256 sq mi) of land and 6,977 square kilometres (2,694 sq mi) of sea area.[50] Jakarta's urban area extends beyond the provincial boundary into the wider metropolitan region, commonly called Jabodetabek, which includes surrounding cities and regencies in West Java and Banten.[51][52] Daily commuting links Jakarta with surrounding municipalities, which are Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi.[53]

The city lies on Java's northwestern coast at the mouth of the Ciliwung river, facing Jakarta Bay.[51] Except for some hilly areas in the south, Jakarta spreads across low, flat terrain. Much of Jakarta lies on an alluvial plain, with elevations ranging from below sea level to about 50 metres (160 feet).[51][50] Thirteen rivers flow through the city from the south toward Jakarta Bay, including the Ciliwung, Angke, Sunter, and Grogol rivers.[51][50] The alluvial plain was historically swampy, and seasonal flooding is common.[51] Flooding is caused by heavy rain and runoff from upstream areas. In addition, high tides, land subsidence, waste-clogged drainage and limited river capacity can worsen inundation.[54][55][56]

Jakarta's flood-control policy has long favoured engineered measures, including canals, dredging, pumping stations and coastal defences.[57][58] Land subsidence is a major driver of coastal-flood risk in northern Jakarta.[59] Groundwater extraction and the weight of buildings and infrastructure are among the human causes of subsidence.[60][61] Beyond flooding, Jakarta also faces severe river-water and air pollution, with air pollution imposing substantial health burdens.[62]

Climate

[edit]
A rainy city street lined with tall office buildings and trees, with cars, motorcycles, and a truck traveling on the wet road as city lights and vehicles reflect on the wet pavement.
Drizzle in Jakarta

Jakarta has a tropical monsoon climate with distinct wet and dry seasons.[63] Rainfall is much heavier from December to March, while June to September is relatively dry.[64] Flooding is common during the rainy season. Heavy rain and upstream runoff can overwhelm rivers and drains, while high tides, land subsidence and urban development can further increase flood risk.[65][66][67]

Jakarta remains warm throughout the year, with monthly means between 26 °C (78.8 °F) and 28 °C (82.4 °F) and the yearly average around 27 °C (80.6 °F).[68] Average daily highs are about 32 °C (89.6 °F), while average daily lows are about 24.8 °C (76.6 °F).[69] Over the long term, Jakarta has also become warmer, with its annual mean temperature rising by about 1.6 °C (2.9 °F) per century between 1866 and 2012.[70]

Climate data for downtown Jakarta (Kemayoran) (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1924–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.9
(98.4)		 35.8
(96.4)		 36.0
(96.8)		 35.9
(96.6)		 36.1
(97.0)		 36.3
(97.3)		 35.6
(96.1)		 35.6
(96.1)		 37.1
(98.8)		 37.9
(100.2)		 37.1
(98.8)		 36.7
(98.1)		 37.9
(100.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 31.0
(87.8)		 30.8
(87.4)		 32.1
(89.8)		 32.8
(91.0)		 33.2
(91.8)		 32.9
(91.2)		 32.7
(90.9)		 33.0
(91.4)		 33.4
(92.1)		 33.4
(92.1)		 32.8
(91.0)		 32.0
(89.6)		 32.5
(90.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 27.5
(81.5)		 27.3
(81.1)		 28.0
(82.4)		 28.4
(83.1)		 28.7
(83.7)		 28.4
(83.1)		 28.2
(82.8)		 28.3
(82.9)		 28.6
(83.5)		 28.8
(83.8)		 28.4
(83.1)		 28.0
(82.4)		 28.2
(82.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 25.2
(77.4)		 25.2
(77.4)		 25.5
(77.9)		 25.6
(78.1)		 25.8
(78.4)		 25.5
(77.9)		 25.3
(77.5)		 25.3
(77.5)		 25.5
(77.9)		 25.6
(78.1)		 25.6
(78.1)		 25.5
(77.9)		 25.5
(77.9)
Record low °C (°F) 20.6
(69.1)		 20.6
(69.1)		 20.6
(69.1)		 20.6
(69.1)		 21.1
(70.0)		 19.4
(66.9)		 19.4
(66.9)		 19.4
(66.9)		 18.9
(66.0)		 20.6
(69.1)		 20.0
(68.0)		 19.4
(66.9)		 18.9
(66.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 373.3
(14.70)		 381.4
(15.02)		 210.4
(8.28)		 164.1
(6.46)		 103.2
(4.06)		 80.4
(3.17)		 77.7
(3.06)		 51.5
(2.03)		 61.0
(2.40)		 112.2
(4.42)		 134.8
(5.31)		 183.3
(7.22)		 1,933.3
(76.11)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 17.5 17.9 14.1 11.5 8.2 6.2 4.8 3.3 4.0 7.4 10.4 12.8 118.1
Average relative humidity (%) 85 85 83 82 82 81 78 76 75 77 81 82 81
Mean monthly sunshine hours 139.5 138.3 189.1 216.0 220.1 219.0 229.4 235.6 225.0 207.7 180.0 148.8 2,348.5
Mean daily sunshine hours 4.5 5.2 6.1 7.2 7.1 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.5 6.7 6.0 4.8 6.5
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[71]
Source 2: Sistema de Clasificación Bioclimática Mundial,[72] Danish Meteorological Institute (humidity),[73] Deutscher Wetterdienst (daily sun 1889–1921)[74]
Climate data for Jakarta
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average sea temperature °C (°F) 28.0
(82.0)		 28.0
(82.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 30.0
(86.0)		 30.0
(86.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)		 29.0
(84.0)
Mean daily daylight hours 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
Average Ultraviolet index 13 13 13 13 11 10 10 12 13 13 13 13 12
Source: Weather Atlas[75]

Cityscape

[edit]
Wide 360-degree panorama of Jakarta from above, showing dense high-rise development, broad roads, green parkland, and a hazy skyline stretching across the horizon.
Panorama of Jakarta as seen from the Monas in a full 360-degree view (river flowing from south-west to north-east, left to right)

Architecture

[edit]
Traditional Betawi wooden house with a deep shaded veranda, dark carved railings, and a steep red-tiled roof, beside a paved courtyard with tropical plants.
Rumah Kebaya built with Betawi architecture at Taman Mini Indonesia Indah

Jakarta's built environment includes Betawi vernacular architecture, colonial-era buildings, post-independence monuments and modern high-rises. Betawi houses are rooted in Malay architectural traditions, with decorative influences from Chinese, Dutch, Portuguese and Arab cultures.[76] Their wide eaves, large openings, and open layouts are also suited to the tropical climate.[77]

Jakarta's colonial architecture developed from the VOC-built core of Batavia through the 19th-century expansion to Weltevreden and further growth in the early 20th century.[78][79][80] By the mid-19th century, Weltevreden had become the colonial administrative centre, with government buildings, elite residences, churches, shops and hotels.[81]

In the early 20th century, planned neighbourhoods such as Menteng combined garden-city layouts with houses adapted to tropical conditions.[82] Menteng, developed in the 1910s, was planned as a healthy residential district for the middle class. The early houses combined climate-adapted features such as broad eaves and open ventilation with modernist and Art Deco design.[83]

After independence, Indonesia's first President Sukarno used major public works as part of nation-building, including the National Monument, the Senayan sports complex, and new major roads.[84] The national legislative complex began as the CONEFO project in 1965. Its main Nusantara Building features a dome formed from two curved sections.[85] From the late 20th century onward, high-rise development increasingly altered Jakarta's skyline, especially the Golden Triangle.[86]

Parks and public spaces

[edit]
Elevated covered walkway and vine-covered structures surrounded by dense green vegetation at Ragunan Zoo.
Ragunan Zoo in southern Jakarta, one of the city's major green and recreational areas.

Public parks and green open spaces occupy a limited share of Jakarta's land area. Green open space (ruang terbuka hijau, RTH) covered about 5.18% of Jakarta in 2023, well below the 30% minimum set by national spatial-planning law.[87] Since 2015, the city has also developed child-friendly integrated public spaces (ruang publik terpadu ramah anak, RPTRA), neighbourhood facilities intended for play, social activity, and community use.[88]

Merdeka Square (Medan Merdeka) in Central Jakarta surrounds the National Monument (Monas). Formerly the colonial Koningsplein in Weltevreden, Medan Merdeka is an important public space in central Jakarta.[89] Nearby Lapangan Banteng, home to the West Irian Liberation Monument, was renovated as a public square beside Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral.[90]

Other public spaces include Suropati Park and Menteng Park in Menteng,[91] while Kalijodo Park has been redeveloped as green and child-friendly public space.[92] Larger recreational sites include Ancol Dreamland, Ragunan Zoo, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, which was conceived as a cultural showcase of Indonesia's diversity.[93][94]

Demographics

[edit]
Man and woman standing side by side in traditional Betawi dress, the man in a black outfit and cap and the woman in a blue floral blouse, red patterned skirt, and red headscarf.
Betawi people, considered an ethnic group native to Jakarta.

Migration has been an important source of Jakarta's population growth.[95][96] Jakarta experienced substantial migration after independence in 1945 and has drawn people from across Indonesia, including many seeking work.[97][98] In 1961, 51% of Jakarta's population had been born in the city, while 46.7% had been born in other Indonesian provinces.[99]

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1945847,483—    
19501,432,052+69.0%
19612,973,052+107.6%
19714,579,303+54.0%
19806,503,449+42.0%
19908,259,266+27.0%
20008,389,443+1.6%
20109,607,787+14.5%
202010,562,088+9.9%
Note: The 1945 and 1950 population totals are cited in Twang (1987) and the Trade, Industrial & Tourism Directory (1969). The 1961 and 2020 totals are from the national censuses conducted in both years, while the 1971–2010 figures are drawn from Statistics Indonesia.
Source: [100][101][102][103][104]

Recent population estimates for Jakarta differ because they use different definitions and geographic boundaries. In the first half of 2025, Jakarta's civil-registration records counted 11,010,514 residents registered at addresses in the province.[5] The United Nations, using its Degree of Urbanization definition, estimated Jakarta's 2025 population at 41.9 million.[105] The Jakarta metropolitan area grew from about 11.4 million people in 1980 to 34 million in 2018, including about 10 million in Jakarta itself.[106] Urban growth also continued into Jakarta's suburbs, including Bogor, Bekasi, and Tangerang.[107]

Ethnicity

[edit]

In the 2010 census, no ethnic group made up a majority of Jakarta's Indonesian citizens. Javanese were the largest group, followed by Betawi, Sundanese, Chinese, and Batak. Minangkabau, Malay, Madurese, and other groups were also recorded.[108] Migration from other parts of Indonesia has contributed to Jakarta's ethnic composition.[109]

The Betawi people are regarded as Jakarta's indigenous ethnic group, but the community itself formed in colonial Batavia from people of varied origins.[110] Early Batavia's population came from many parts of Asia and the Indonesian archipelago, including Chinese, Bandanese, South Indian Muslims, Malays, Balinese, Buginese, and Ambonese.[111] Everyday contact across ethnic lines, including intermarriage, helped forge a shared Betawi identity. Islam also was an important bond across these groups.[112] Today, Betawi communities live in central and peripheral parts of Jakarta and in nearby Bekasi and Tangerang.[110]

Jakarta also has long-established Chinese communities. The Chinatown area around Glodok and Petak Sembilan dates back to the 1700s. Other Chinatown districts include Pasar Baru, Kelapa Gading, and Pluit.[113] Pasar Baru is also associated with Jakarta's Indian community and is sometimes called 'Little India'.[114]

Batak and Minangkabau were among the larger ethnic communities recorded in Jakarta in the 2010 census.[109] Within Jakarta's Batak population, Toba Batak form the largest subgroup.[115] Minangkabau migration to Jakarta is part of their practice of merantau. Comparison of census data shows recorded Minangkabau migrant destinations from 1.5% in 1930 to 25% in 1971.[116]

Language

[edit]
Roadside sign amid trees reading "NYOK BARENG-BARENG KITE JAGE DAN KITE BANGUN JAKARTA TIMUR", with red-and-white Indonesian flag decorations below.
A sign encouraging development in East Jakarta written in the Betawi language.

The Indonesian language is widely spoken across Jakarta, as it is the national and official language of Indonesia.[117] It is also a language of wider communication across ethnic groups.[118] The Betawi language embodies Jakarta's long history of contact among different cultural groups.[119] Betawi Malay and colloquial Jakartan Indonesian are distinct varieties. The latter has been strongly influenced by Betawi Malay and has spread beyond Jakarta.[120]

Some Jakarta communities continue to use regional languages in family and social settings, including Toba Batak and Minangkabau.[121][122] Among young Chinese Indonesians surveyed in West and North Jakarta, everyday family language use has shifted toward Indonesian, while Chinese heritage languages are maintained unevenly across households.[123]

Education

[edit]
White colonial-era institutional building with tall shuttered windows and a broad tiled roof, partly framed by trees and flowering gardens.
The University of Indonesia's Faculty of Medicine occupies the Salemba building to which STOVIA moved in 1919.[124].

Jakarta and its surrounding metropolitan area has several major public universities. These include the University of Indonesia, the State University of Jakarta, and Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta.[125] The city also has a large private higher-education sector, including institutions such as Trisakti University and Binus University. In addition, the provincial government's list of international schools includes Jakarta Intercultural School and Australian Independent School.[126]

Formal medical training in Batavia began in 1851 with a two-year course preparing young Javanese men for vaccination work. The programme grew in length and scope over time. STOVIA moved to Salemba in 1919, and the higher-level Batavia Medical School began taking students in 1927.[127]

Religion

[edit]
Aerial view of Istiqlal Mosque, showing its large white dome, rectangular prayer hall, and tall minaret amid central Jakarta buildings.
Istiqlal Mosque is the largest mosque in Southeast Asia.

According to the Ministry of Religious Affairs data in 2025, 83.85% of Jakarta's population was Muslim. Christians accounted for 12.51%, followed by Buddhists (3.44%), Hindus (0.18%), Confucianis (0.02%), and a small number registered under other religions.[128]

Several national Islamic organisations have offices in Jakarta. The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI), founded in Jakarta in 1975, is based in Central Jakarta,[129] while Nahdlatul Ulama's central board (PBNU) also has its office in Central Jakarta.[130] Muhammadiyah is formally based in Yogyakarta, but its central leadership operates from offices in both Yogyakarta and Jakarta.[131]

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Jakarta is a metropolitan archdiocese with Bandung and Bogor as its suffragan dioceses.[132] For Jakarta's Sikh community, gurdwaras are used as places of worship and centres for religious and social activities.[133] The Bahá'í International Community also maintains its Southeast Asian regional office in Jakarta.[134]

Economy

[edit]
Jakarta skyline with clusters of modern high-rise office towers rising behind a tree-lined roadway.
The Sudirman Central Business District (SCBD) is a prominent business centre in Jakarta.

Under Jakarta's 2024 special-region law, the city's post-capital-transfer role is defined as a national economic centre and global city, with activities spanning trade, services, finance, and national, regional, and global business.[135] The economic significance of Jakarta developed over centuries, from Sunda Kelapa's role as a trading port to Batavia's commercial activities, and later to the wider metropolitan area's place in national and global economic networks.[136]

In 2024, Jakarta's GRDP was Rp 3,679.36 trillion at current prices, while real economic output grew by 4.90% from 2023. Wholesale and retail trade, including motor-vehicle and motorcycle repair, accounted for 18.01% of Jakarta's economy in 2024, the largest industry share, while household consumption accounted for 62.03% on the expenditure side.[137] Jakarta recorded Rp 241.9 trillion in realised investment in the same year, the second-largest provincial total in Indonesia.[138]

Services dominate Jakarta's economy. Trade, finance, business services, information and communications, transport, hospitality, and public administration are part of the city's industries.[137] Jakarta is closely connected to surrounding parts of West Java and Banten through commuting, transport infrastructure, and employment and development in suburban areas.[139]

Shopping

[edit]
Interior of a large multi-level shopping mall with glass-fronted stores, escalators, open balconies, and a promotional display in the central atrium.
Grand Indonesia shopping mall.

Jakarta has a large retail sector, with modern shopping centres operating alongside traditional markets. According to a late 2024 data, Jakarta had about 4.81 million square metres of shopping-centre retail space.[140] Grand Indonesia and Plaza Indonesia are among Jakarta's high-end shopping centres.[141] Beyond shopping, Jakarta's malls are also used as air-conditioned social and leisure spaces, partly substituting for scarce public space. However, access to these privately controlled spaces is unequal.[141][142]

Traditional markets (pasar) are also a part of the city's retail life.[143] Tanah Abang is a major centre for wholesale textile trade.[144] Pasar Baru, established in 1820 as a commercial district in Weltevreden, retains a diversity of retail uses.[145] In Glodok, shops and market activity are part of the area's Chinese Indonesian urban character.[146] Specialised retail areas include the Jalan Surabaya antique market and the Jakarta Gems Centre at Rawa Bening, a centre for gemstone processing and sales.[147][148]

Tourism

[edit]
Aerial view of a small tropical island covered with dense trees and low-rise buildings, surrounded by turquoise water, piers, and boats.
Untung Jawa Island, part of the Thousand Islands north of Jakarta's coast.

Jakarta is one of Indonesia's busiest entry points for foreign tourists.[149] In 2024, it recorded about 2.5 million international tourist visits, representing 18.2% of Indonesia's total.[150] In the first quarter of 2025, Jakarta recorded about 23.2 million domestic tourist trips.[151] Input-output analysis found that tourism-related demand affects economic output, household income and employment, with transport and warehousing, accommodation and food services, and information and communication showing some of the largest multiplier effects.[152]

Many foreign visitors arrive in Jakarta for business or transit.[149] A 2016 study of foreign visitors identified several lifestyle segments, including one combining cultural interests with shopping.[153] Shopping centres also form part of Jakarta's urban tourism, with some combining retail with green space, galleries, events and other leisure facilities.[154]

Jakarta's tourist attractions include the National Monument (Monas), the Jakarta Old Town (Kota Tua), and Sunda Kelapa harbour. The 132-metre Monas in Merdeka Square commemorates Indonesia's struggle for independence and has an observation deck overlooking the city.[155] Kota Tua preserves elements of colonial Batavia, including canals, former VOC warehouses and the old Town Hall.[156] To the north, the historic Sunda Kelapa harbour is another attraction, which is still used by traditional inter-island vessels.[155]

Culture

[edit]
Close-up of two colorful Betawi ondel-ondel giant puppets, one with a pale face and one with a red face, featuring painted facial details and large radiating headdresses made of multicolored decorative spikes.
Ondel-ondel, a large traditional Betawi puppet.

Jakarta's cultural life showcases a population influenced by long-standing migration from across Indonesia.[98][157] Betawi traditions are part of local culture, along with cultural practices of communities from other parts of Indonesia.[158][159]

Arts and festivals

[edit]

Betawi performing arts include traditions such as tanjidor, lenong, and ondel-ondel.[160] Lebaran Betawi is held as a public celebration and educational event intended to introduce and preserve Betawi culture.[161] Condet was designated a Betawi cultural heritage area in 1976, but the designation was revoked in 1988. More recent plans have again promoted Betawi cultural activities there.[162]

Wayang orang Bharata stages regular performances at the Bharata Purwa theatre in Senen,[163] while Aula Simfonia Jakarta is a major venue for orchestral and Western classical music and is regularly used by professional ensembles.[164] Taman Ismail Marzuki in Menteng hosts art exhibitions, dance and music performances, cultural programmes, and astronomy activities linked to the Jakarta Planetarium.[165] Jakarta also hosts recurring cultural events, such as Jakarta Fashion Week and the Java Jazz Festival.[166][167] International cultural institutions in the city include the Japan Foundation's Jakarta centre and Erasmus Huis, the Netherlands' cultural centre.[168][169]

Cuisine

[edit]
A bowl of creamy soto Betawi topped with pieces of meat, tomato, herbs, and crackers, served on a wooden placemat beside a plate piled with extra crackers. To the right is a wooden cutting board leafy herbs, chopped green onions, and red chilies on it. Two whole tomatoes are in the foreground.
Soto betawi, a Jakarta-area variant of soto.

Betawi cuisine draws on cultural influences from other parts of the archipelago and from overseas, including Malay, Chinese, Arab, Portuguese, and Dutch traditions.[170] One example is Soto betawi a Jakarta-area soto made with beef and offal in a broth containing coconut milk or cow's milk.[171]

Wartegs are one prevalent example of a street-side eatery, as they serve simple, inexpensive meals to a wide range of Jakarta residents and workers.[172] Several districts are known for concentrations of food vendors and restaurants. The Sabang area in Central Jakarta lies near other food clusters in Kebon Sirih,[173] while Blok M has developed into a popular culinary destination, particularly among younger visitors.[174] In Glodok, Chinese and traditional foods are part of Chinatown's appeal as a culinary destination.[175]

Sports

[edit]
Interior of Jakarta International Stadium during a football match, showing the illuminated pitch, sweeping tiers of orange and gray seating, spectators, and the large roof structure overhead.
The Jakarta International Stadium in Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta. With a seating capacity of 82,000, it is Indonesia's biggest stadium.

Jakarta has hosted major international sporting events, including the 1962 and 2018 Asian Games, which it co-hosted with Palembang.[176][177] The Gelora Bung Karno Stadium was also one of the venues for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup.[178] The larger Gelora Bung Karno complex also contains an aquatic stadium, Istora indoor arena, tennis venues, football fields, and other sports facilities.[179] Other major venues include the Jakarta International Stadium, a retractable-roof football stadium inaugurated in 2022,[180] and the Jakarta International Velodrome in Rawamangun, which was used for the 2018 Asian Games.[181]

Jakarta residents also use streets and public spaces for exercise and organised events. During Jakarta Car-Free Day, sections of Sudirman and Thamrin are closed to motor traffic and used for exercise and family activities.[182] while the Jakarta Marathon has been held since 2013.[183] The city has also hosted international motorsport, including the first Jakarta ePrix that was held in 2022 at the Jakarta International e-Prix Circuit at Ancol Beach.[184]

Media and entertainment

[edit]
A tall TV broadcasting tower rises behind a TVRI building, with a large antenna at the top against a cloudy sky.
The main TV tower of TVRI at its headquarters in Jakarta].

Many Indonesian media organisations are headquartered in Jakarta but the concentration varies by medium, with television ownership especially Jakarta-centric and radio and newspapers being more broadly Java-centric.[185] Its media history reaches back to colonial Batavia, where Bataviase Nouvelles began appearing in 1744 and was said to be circulating mainly among VOC employees and Europeans. It printed government edicts and advertisements, especially auction notices.[186] In 1809, the City Printing Press was merged with the Castle Printing House to form the Landsdrukkerij (Government Printing Press).[187]

Broadcasting also developed around institutions based in the capital. Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI), founded in 1945, is headquartered in Central Jakarta. Indonesian television began with Televisi Republik Indonesia's first broadcasts from Jakarta in August 1962.[188][189] Jakarta's cultural venues host performances, concerts, exhibitions, and film screenings.[190] Jakarta's creative economy also includes individual practitioners, community groups, and creative hubs.[191]

Government and politics

[edit]
Jakarta City Hall complex with a large fountain and potted plants in the foreground, an Indonesian flag flying at center, and modern office buildings rising behind.
The Jakarta City Hall

Jakarta is a special autonomous region at the provincial level.[135] Formerly a municipality of the West Java province, Jakarta became a "first-level region" (Daerah Tingkat I) in 1957, and later acquired the status of a Special Capital Region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI) in 1961.[192] Under the city's 2024 special-region law, Jakarta remains the national capital until a presidential decree formalises the transfer to Nusantara.[135]

Jakarta's provincial government is headed by a directly elected governor and vice governor, while the Jakarta Regional People's Representative Council has legislative, budgetary, and oversight roles.[193] The administrative cities and the Thousand Islands administrative regency are headed by mayors and a regent appointed by the governor rather than elected locally.[194] At the national level, Jakarta elects 21 DPR members from three electoral districts and four DPD members.[195][196]

Jakarta derives most of its provincial revenue from local sources. In 2024, realised revenue was Rp72.95 trillion, including Rp50.74 trillion in locally generated revenue (pendapatan asli daerah, PAD) and Rp21.62 trillion in transfer revenue.[197] Basic-service functions accounted for 56.33% of provincial spending, with education and health being the largest components.[198] Jakarta also accounted for about half of Indonesia's cumulative subnational borrowing during the 2016–2021 period, with gross cumulative loans of Rp37 trillion.[199]

Administrative divisions

[edit]
Map of Jakarta divided into its five administrative cities, showing district boundaries, roads, and major location markers. The Thousand Islands Regency shown in an inset at lower left.
Map of Jakarta's administrative cities, with the Thousand Islands Regency shown in a lower-left inset.

Jakarta is divided into five administrative cities (kota administrasi) and one administrative regency (kabupaten administrasi). The administrative cities are Central Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, East Jakarta, and North Jakarta, while the Thousand Islands form the province's sole administrative regency.[200] The five administrative cities were established by gubernatorial decree in 1966.[201] In 2001, the Thousand Islands, then part of North Jakarta, was elevated to an administrative regency to improve public services and welfare and the management of the islands.[202]

Each administrative city is headed by a mayor, and the Thousand Islands by a regent.[51] The five cities and the regency are made up of districts (kecamatan).[200] Unlike autonomous cities and regencies elsewhere in Indonesia, Jakarta's administrative cities and regency are non-autonomous parts of the provincial administration. City and regency councils assist their mayors or regent, but the units do not have their own DPRD.[203]

Public safety

[edit]

Policing in Jakarta is handled by Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Regional Police (Polda Metro Jaya), the regional police force of the Indonesian National Police. Its jurisdiction covers Jakarta and nearby areas including Depok, Tangerang city and regency, South Tangerang, and Bekasi city and regency. The force is led by a regional police chief with the rank of inspector general.[204]

Jakarta Siaga 112 is a free, 24-hour emergency call service operated by the Jakarta's disaster management agency (BPBD).[205][206] It integrates emergency-call services from provincial agencies, police and other organizations, forwarding reports on fires, medical emergencies, crime, disasters and other incidents to the relevant service.[207]

Infrastructure

[edit]

Transportation

[edit]
A red-and-silver KAI Commuter train travels along railway tracks beneath overhead power lines, with trees and greenery lining the route.
A parked blue-and-white electric TransJakarta bus, with the word 'Electric Bus' displayed on its side.
Two examples of public transport in Jakarta, the KRL Commuterline and the Transjakarta bus

The Jakarta metro area is heavily dependent on private road transport and experiences severe traffic congestion.[208] Jakarta is served by the Jakarta Inner Ring Road and Jakarta Outer Ring Road, as well as toll roads linking the city with Tangerang, Cikampek, Bogor and other surrounding areas.[209] To reduce congestion, Jakarta uses an odd-even licence-plate restriction system on 16 main roads.[210]

Jakarta's public transport network includes Transjakarta, the Jakarta MRT, Jakarta LRT, Jabodebek LRT, KRL Commuterline, and the airport rail link.[211][212] Since 2018, Jakarta has expanded fare and station integration and improved walking and cycling access to public transport.[213] In 2021, Jakarta received the Sustainable Transport Award for work on integrated and resilient transport systems.[214] The wider metropolitan area also has large daily commuter flows between Jakarta and Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi.[215]

The primary airport for the metropolitan area is the Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, while Halim Perdanakusuma also accommodates commercial flights along with military purposes.[216][217] Port of Tanjung Priok in North Jakarta is Indonesia's largest and busiest port, while the Muara Angke harbour provides boat services to the Thousand Islands.[218][219]

Healthcare

[edit]
White hospital building with tower-like roof sections decorated with Indonesian flags and red-and-white bunting. A covered entrance, parked cars, and a driveway is shown in front.
Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital in Jakarta

As elsewhere in Indonesia, Jakarta's healthcare system includes public and private hospitals, clinics, and community health centres (puskesmas).[220] In late 2012, then governor Joko Widodo introduced the Kartu Jakarta Sehat (Healthy Jakarta Card, KJS), a provincial programme intended to expand access to medical care through public health facilities.[221] The programme merged into the national Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN) system in January 2014, administered by BPJS Kesehatan.[222] A 2025 Jakarta planning document reported that universal health coverage in the city had reached 98.5% in 2023.[223]

A 2023 assessment estimated that air pollution in Jakarta contributes annually to more than 10,000 premature deaths and 5,000 hospital admissions, as well as over 7,000 cases of adverse health effects among children.[224] In the 2023 Indonesia Health Survey, 3.9% of residents aged 15 or over had doctor-diagnosed diabetes, the highest provincial rate in the country, while 31.8% of residents aged over 18 were obese.[225]

Water supply

[edit]

Jakarta granted two 25-year concessions to private water operators in 1997, PAM Lyonnaise Jaya and Thames PAM Jaya (renamed Aetra in 2007). Both companies operated in the eastern and western part of the city.[226] PAM Jaya resumed full operation in 2023 after private management ended.[227] The West Tarum Canal, which carries water from the Jatiluhur Dam and the Citarum River, supplied about 80% of Jakarta's bulk water as of 2014.[228]

Piped-water coverage had reached about 82% of Jakarta's population by 2026.[229] Historically, access was uneven, with poorer households facing barriers to direct network connections.[230] Groundwater has long supplied a substantial share of the city's water needs, but heavy extraction is linked to land subsidence and salinisation. Waste-water contamination also affects shallow groundwater.[231] In 2024, non-revenue water, the difference between water distributed and water billed to customers, stood at 46.2%, and the city's reduction programme prioritises rehabilitating ageing distribution pipelines.[232][233]

International relations

[edit]

As Indonesia's capital, Jakarta hosts foreign embassies and the ASEAN Headquarters. Several non-ASEAN countries also maintain ambassadors accredited to ASEAN.[234] Jakarta has been a member of C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group since 2006 and is also a member of the ASEAN Smart Cities Network, a platform for cooperation on smart and sustainable urban development.[235][236]

Twin towns – sister cities

[edit]

Jakarta has established sister city relationships with a number of cities. They are:[237]

Jakarta also maintains other international cooperation arrangements.[237] Jakarta's partnership with Rotterdam has included capacity-building and knowledge exchange on integrated urban water management.[239] In addition to its sister cities, Jakarta cooperates with:[237]

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ (/dʒəˈkɑːrtə/ ⓘ jə-KAR-tə; Indonesian pronunciation: [d͡ʒaˈkarta] ⓘ; Betawi: Jakartè, pronounced [d͡ʑakarˈtɛ] ⓘ; Jakartan slang: Jekardah or Jakardha) Formerly spelled as Djakarta, and formerly known as Batavia until 1949
  2. ↑ Indonesian: Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta

References

[edit]
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  174. ↑ Kulsum & Tjkrosaputro 2025, p. 300.
  175. ↑ Christalyn & Sarudin 2024, p. 1.
  176. ↑ "Jakarta 1962". Olympic Council of Asia.
  177. ↑ "Jakarta - Palembang 2018". Olympic Council of Asia.
  178. ↑ "Asian Cup venue: Gelora Bungkarno Stadium". ABC News, 2007.
  179. ↑ "GBK - Sports Complex". Gelora Bung Karno.
  180. ↑ "Indonesia: Jakarta International Stadium inaugurated!". Stadium DB, 2022.
  181. ↑ "Jakpost guide to Asian Games 2018". The Jakarta Post, 2018.
  182. ↑ "Jakarta Car Free Day: Exercise and Socialise". Now Jakarta, 2019.
  183. ↑ "IAAF Approves Jakarta Marathon's Route". Tempo, 2013.
  184. ↑ "Last year in Jakarta...". ABB FIA Formula E World Championship, 2023.
  185. ↑ Masduki & D'Haenens 2022, pp. 2246, 2253.
  186. ↑ Adam 1984, p. 3.
  187. ↑ Adam 1984, p. 4.
  188. ↑ Kitley 2000, p. 22.
  189. ↑ "RRI (Radio Republik Indonesia)". WorldDAB.
  190. ↑ Fleming 2021, p. 15.
  191. ↑ British Council & Jakarta Creative Economy Committee 2023, p. 2.
  192. ↑ "History of Jakarta". Government of Jakarta.
  193. ↑ Sapii, Aponno & Thoriq 2025, p. 91.
  194. ↑ KPU 2024, pp. 22–24.
  195. ↑ DPR RI 2014, p. 124.
  196. ↑ DKI Jakarta Province Official Portal 2025, p. 69.
  197. ↑ DKI Jakarta Province Official Portal 2025, p. 15.
  198. ↑ Ihsan, Rahmadanti & Ilman 2023, p. 20.
  199. 1 2 DKI Jakarta Provincial Government 2021, p. 2.
  200. ↑ Governor of Jakarta 1966, p. 2.
  201. ↑ "Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia No. 55 of 2001 on the Establishment of the Thousand Islands Administrative Regency in the Special Capital Region of Jakarta". Audit Board of Indonesia, 2001.
  202. ↑ Uzdah 2024, pp. 45, 47.
  203. ↑ "Profile - Tribrata News Polda Metro Jaya". Tribrata News.
  204. ↑ Governor of Jakarta 2017, p. 1.
  205. ↑ "Jakarta Siaga 112 Emergency Call Service". Jakarta Regional Disaster Management Agency.
  206. ↑ Governor of Jakarta 2017, pp. 3, 5–6.
  207. ↑ World Bank 2022, p. 10.
  208. ↑ "Toll Road Concession Business". PT Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk.
  209. ↑ Azni, Prihantoro & Saputra 2024, pp. 31, 33.
  210. ↑ "President opens Jabodebek LRT". Railway Gazette International, 2023.
  211. ↑ TUMI 2023, p. 2.
  212. ↑ ITDP 2021, pp. 3, 9, 11.
  213. ↑ ITDP 2021, p. 2.
  214. ↑ "Commuter Statistics of Greater Jakarta: Results of the 2023 Jabodetabek Commuter Survey". Statistics Indonesia, 2024.
  215. ↑ Harjono, Sembiring & Pasaribu 2023, p. 292.
  216. ↑ "At Halim military airbase, defense comes after business". The Jakarta Post, 2016.
  217. ↑ Susantono et al. 2015, p. 101.
  218. ↑ "Want Vacation? Here are Boat Fares to Seribu Islands". Berita Jakarta, 2022.
  219. ↑ Mahendradhata et al. 2017, pp. 151–152, 156.
  220. ↑ "Jokowi set to launch 'Jakarta Health Card'". The Jakarta Post, 2012.
  221. ↑ Pisani 2017, pp. 267, 272.
  222. ↑ Bappeda 2025, p. 38.
  223. ↑ "7 Things to Know About Jakarta's Air Pollution Crisis". World Resources Institute Indonesia, 2023.
  224. ↑ "Key Results of the 2023 Indonesia Health Survey". Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia.
  225. ↑ ADB 2013, p. 3.
  226. ↑ "PAM Jaya Starts 100% Independent Operations Today". Government of Jakarta, 2023.
  227. ↑ Hadipuro et al. 2014, p. 369.
  228. ↑ "Jakarta, the Sinking Metropolis Where Millions Still Struggle to Access Piped Water". The Diplomat, 2026.
  229. ↑ Bakker et al. 2008, p. 1905.
  230. ↑ Kooy, Walter & Prabaharyaka 2018, pp. 111–112.
  231. ↑ "NRW Reduction". Government of Jakarta.
  232. ↑ "Contracting Tools for Non-Revenue Water Reduction". World Bank.
  233. ↑ "What does Indonesia's new capital mean for Jakarta and the ASEAN headquarters?". Indonesia at Melbourne, 2024.
  234. ↑ "Jakarta, Indonesia". C40 Cities.
  235. ↑ "ASEAN Smart Cities Network". ASEAN.
  236. 1 2 3 "21 State Capitals Working with Sister City with Jakarta". Berita Jakarta, 2019.
  237. ↑ "BMC plans 'sister city square' to celebrate Mumbai's bond with its 15 sister cities". Hindustan Times, 2022.
  238. ↑ "Jakarta and Rotterdam strengthen ties on urban water management". Neso Indonesia, 2014.
  239. ↑ "NYC's Partner Cities". City of New York.
  240. ↑ "The City of Osaka's International Network". City of Osaka.

Sources

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  • Firman, T. (2014). "The dynamics of Jabodetabek development: the challenge of urban governance". In Hill, H. (ed.). Regional Dynamics in a Decentralized Indonesia. ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. pp. 368–385. doi:10.1355/9789814519175-022. ISBN 9789814519175.
  • Kitley, P. (2000). Television, Nation, and Culture in Indonesia. Research in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series (1 ed.). Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-89680-212-4. JSTOR j.ctt1rfspj7.
  • Kusno, A. (2025). "The rise and fall of Glodok". In Boonstra, S.; et al. (eds.). Rethinking Histories of Indonesia: Experiencing, Resisting and Renegotiating Coloniality. ANU Press. pp. 295–320. doi:10.22459/RHI.2025.11. ISBN 978-1-76046-697-8.
  • Reid, A. (2010). "Islam in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean Littoral, 1500-1800: Expansion, Polarization, Synthesis". In Morgan, David O.; Reid, A. (eds.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. pp. 427–469. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521850315.014. ISBN 978-1-10-745697-6.

Journal articles

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  • Azni, Isnatami N.; Prihantoro, W.; Saputra, Yana A. (2024). "Optimizing public space design through odd-even policy: Reducing traffic congestion and pollution in DKI Jakarta". Journal of Placemaking and Streetscape Design. 2 (1): 31–42. doi:10.61511/jpstd.v2i1.2024.888.
  • Bott, L.-M.; Schöne, T.; Illigner, J.; Haghshenas Haghighi, M.; Gisevius, K.; Braun, B. (2021). "Land subsidence in Jakarta and Semarang Bay – The relationship between physical processes, risk perception, and household adaptation". Ocean & Coastal Management. 211 105775. Bibcode:2021OCM...21105775B. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105775.
  • Budianto, V.; Tadeus, Redemptsia Q. E.; Djaukar, J.; Ekomadyo, Agus S.; Sugangga, M. (2023). "An evaluation of the alleys of Glodok and its market culture". ARTEKS: Jurnal Teknik Arsitektur. 8 (3): 395–404. doi:10.30822/arteks.v8i3.2547.
  • Castles, L. (1967). "The Ethnic Profile of Jakarta". Indonesia (3). Cornell University: 153–204. JSTOR 3350726.
  • Cribb, R. (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550.
  • Ellisa, E. (2018). "The Recreational Landscape of Weltevreden Since Indonesian Colonization". Journal of Urban Culture Research. 17: 12–30. doi:10.58837/CHULA.JUCR.17.1.4.
  • Grzegorzewski, M.J. (2025). "Shopping mall city and escapism: Urban life and privatized comfort in Jakarta, Indonesia". Cities. 167 106335. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2025.106335.
  • Gultom, A. (2017). "Kalapa–Jacatra–Batavia–Jakarta: An old city that never gets old". Journal of Archaeology and Fine Arts in Southeast Asia. 2. SEAMEO Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA): 1–27. doi:10.26721/spafajournal.v2i0.173.
  • Hadi, A.; Tirtosudarmo, R. (2016). "Migration, Ethnicity and Local Politics: The Case of Jakarta, Indonesia". Populasi. 24 (2): 23–36. doi:10.22146/jp.27228.
  • Hadipuro, W.; Rusmadi; Latif, A.; Ekaningdyah, A. (2014). "Market triumphalism in water governance: a study of the Indonesian West Tarum Canal water allocation". International Journal of Water. 8 (4): 368–380. Bibcode:2014IJWat...8..368H. doi:10.1504/IJW.2014.065793.
  • Handayani, L. (2025). "Development of the Sikh Community in Jakarta: History and Social Dynamics". Hanifiya: Jurnal Studi Agama-Agama. 8: 129–138. doi:10.15575/hanifiya.v8i1.43926.
  • Hitchcock, M. (2005). ""We will know our nation better": Taman Mini and nation building in Indonesia". Civilisations. 52 (2): 45–56. doi:10.4000/civilisations.754.
  • Indraprahasta, G.S.; Derudder, B. (2019). "World City-ness in a historical perspective: Probing the long-term evolution of the Jakarta metropolitan area". Habitat International. 89 102000. doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102000.
  • Kehoe, M.L. (2015). "Dutch Batavia: Exposing the Hierarchy of the Dutch Colonial City". Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art. 7 (1). doi:10.5092/jhna.2015.7.1.3.
  • Koto, J.; Bela Negara, R.; Tasri, A.; Kamil, I. (2018). "Study on the Phenomenon of Flood Characteristic in DKI Jakarta". Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace -science and Engineering-. 51. International Society of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace Scientists and Engineers: 19–30. doi:10.36842/jomase.v51i1.43.
  • Lucius, Christophera R.; Santosa, I.; Martokusumo, W.; Nugraha, A. (2024). "A Study on Indonesian Sociopolitical Design Objects within the Framework of Gesamtkunstwerk". Southeast Asian Studies. 13 (2): 287–310. doi:10.20495/seas.13.2_287.
  • Luvaas, B. (2013). "Third World No More: Rebranding Indonesian Streetwear". Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the Fashion Industry. 5 (2): 203–227. doi:10.2752/175693813X13705243201496.
  • Natalia, L.; Winata, T. (2022). "Penataan Kembali Pasar Barang Antik di Jalan Surabaya melalui Pendekatan Shopping Behavior Generasi Milenial" [Reorganizing the Jalan Surabaya Antique Market through a Millennial Shopping Behavior Approach]. Jurnal Sains, Teknologi, Urban, Perancangan, Arsitektur (STUPA) (in Indonesian). 4 (2). Tarumanegara University: 727–742. doi:10.24912/stupa.v4i2.21709.
  • Noorduyn, J.; Verstappen, H.Th. (1972). "Purnavarman's river-works near Tugu". Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia. 128 (2–3). Koninklijke Brill NV: 298–307.
  • Nurizki, V.; Herlambang, S.; Rahardjo, P. (2020). "Penataan Kawasan Cagar Budaya Betawi Condet Ciliwung, Jakarta Timur, sebagai Destinasi Wisata Alam dan Budaya" [Planning the Betawi Cultural Heritage Area of Condet Ciliwung, East Jakarta, as a Cultural and Nature Tourism Destination]. Jurnal Sains, Teknologi, Urban, Perancangan, Arsitektur (STUPA) (in Indonesian). 2 (2). Tarumanegara University: 2771–2786. doi:10.24912/stupa.v2i2.8858.
  • Octavianti, T.; Charles, K. (2018). "The evolution of Jakarta's flood policy over the past 400 years: The lock-in of infrastructural solutions". Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space. 37 (6): 1102–1125. doi:10.1177/2399654418813578.
  • Padawangi, R.; Douglass, M. (2015). "Water, Water Everywhere: Toward Participatory Solutions to Chronic Urban Flooding in Jakarta". Pacific Affairs. 88 (3): 517–550. doi:10.5509/2015883517.
  • Petricia, Y. (2022). "Understanding Betawi Culture in Jakarta People Through the Implementation of the Betawi Lebaran Event". COMMENTATE: Journal of Communication Management. 3 (1). LSPR Institute of Communication & Business: 83–90. doi:10.37535/103003120228.
  • Rustiadi, E.; Pravitasari, Andrea E.; Setiawan, Y.; Mulya, Setyardi P.; Pribadi, Didit O.; Tsutsumida, N. (2021). "Impact of continuous Jakarta megacity urban expansion on the formation of the Jakarta-Bandung conurbation over the rice farm regions". Cities. 111 103000. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2020.103000.
  • Sapii, Rahmat B. S.; Aponno, Axcel D.; Thoriq, Ahmad R. (2025). "Pengaturan Pengangkatan Wali Kota/Bupati oleh Gubernur: Pra dan Pasca Lahirnya Undang-Undang Daerah Khusus Jakarta" [Legal Framework for the Appointment of Mayors and Regents by the Governor: Before and After the Enactment of the Jakarta Special Region Law]. Jurnal Asosiasi Pengajar Hukum Tata Negara dan Hukum Administrasi Negara (in Indonesian). 4 (2): 85–104. doi:10.55292/japhtnhan.v4i2.193.
  • Siregar, I.; Hamzah, N.H.B. (2024). "Effectiveness of the Language Preservation Model in the Betawi Community". Eurasian Journal of Applied Linguistics. 10 (2): 274–281. doi:10.32601/ejal.10223 (inactive 16 August 2026).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2026 (link)
  • Siswanto, S.; van Oldenborgh, Geert J.; van der Schrier, G.; Jilderda, R.; van den Hurk, B. (2016). "Temperature, extreme precipitation, and diurnal rainfall changes in the urbanized Jakarta city during the past 130 years". International Journal of Climatology. 36 (9): 3207–3225. doi:10.1002/joc.4548.
  • Sopandi, S. (2017). "Modern Indonesian Architecture: A Cultural Discourse". Docomomo Journal (57): 20–29. doi:10.52200/57.A.KQFG8KIO.
  • Srihadi, Tara F.; Hartoyo; Sukandar, D.; Soehadi, Agus W. (2016). "Segmentation of the tourism market for Jakarta: Classification of foreign visitors' lifestyle typologies". Tourism Management Perspectives. 19: 32–39. doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2016.03.005.
  • Supriono; Topowijono; Musadieq, Muhammad A. (2017). "Problem Identification of Foreign Tourist Distribution in Indonesia". Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio-Economic Sciences. 7 (67): 115–120. doi:10.18551/rjoas.2017-07.13.
  • Takagi, H.; Esteban, M.; Mikami, T.; Pratama, Munawir B.; Valenzuela, Ven P. B.; Avelino, John E. (2021). "People's perception of land subsidence, floods, and their connection: A note based on recent surveys in a sinking coastal community in Jakarta". Ocean & Coastal Management. 211 105753. Bibcode:2021OCM...21105753T. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.105753.
  • Tanuwijaya, A.; Ratnaningrum, D. (2020). "Jaringan Kuliner Kota di Kebon Sirih" [City Culinary Network in Kebon Sirih]. Jurnal Sains, Teknologi, Urban, Perancangan, Arsitektur (STUPA) (in Indonesian). 2 (1). Tarumanegara University: 329–338. doi:10.24912/stupa.v2i1.6868.
  • Utari, R.; Soesilo, Tri Edhi B.; Haruki, A. (2024). "Policy analysis of sustainable traditional market management". Community Service for Sustainable Community Journal. 1 (1). University of Indonesia: 12–22. doi:10.61511/csjsc.v1i1.2024.702.
  • Uzdah, N. (2024). "Analysis of Governance System and Authority Distribution in DKI Jakarta: A Study of Government Structure and Electoral System". Mahadi: Indonesia Journal of Law. 3 (1): 42–50. doi:10.32734/mah.v3i01.15483.
  • Yuliana, V.; Yanti (2023). "Language Attitudes, Shift, and Maintenance: A Case Study of Jakartan Chinese Indonesians". Linguistik Indonesia. 41 (2): 241–262. doi:10.26499/li.v41i2.517.

Conference papers and proceedings

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  • Bonneau, M.C.; Parantika, A. (2016). Jazz in Jakarta: a Challenge for Tourism in the Fast-Transforming City. Asia Tourism Forum 2016 - The 12th Biennial Conference of Hospitality and Tourism Industry in Asia. Atlantis Press. pp. 283–286. doi:10.2991/atf-16.2016.42.
  • Christalyn, R.; Sarudin, R. (2024). Analysis of the Influence of Chinese Cuisine Culinary Tourism on the Image of Glodok Chinatown Destination in West Jakarta. International Proceeding Global Sustainable Tourism Conference. Bunda Mulia University. doi:10.30813/glost.v0i0.5856.
  • Hidayat, M.S.; Suhendar, R. (August 2018). The Assessment of Building Envelope Performance of Vernacular Architecture in Betawi House. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Vol. 453, art. 012053. IOP Publishing. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/453/1/012053.
  • Kartika, D.I.; Kartika, Y. (2022). The Spice Route from Arabic, Europe and China to Jayakarta toward Batavian Cuisine: Revitalization of Batavian Local Wisdom Values through Batavian Culinary Gastronomy. Proceedings of the 9th Asbam International Conference (Archeology, History, & Culture In The Nature of Malay) (ASBAM 2021). Atlantis Press. pp. 722–733. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.220408.101.
  • Kulsum, D.S.; Tjkrosaputro, M. (13 August 2025). Understanding Behavioral Intention in Blok M's Culinary Tourism: Gastronomy Image, Experiences, and Satisfaction. Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference on Entrepreneurship and Business Management UNTAR 2024 (ICEBM 2024). Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research. Atlantis Press. doi:10.2991/978-94-6463-809-7_24.
  • Saragih, V.; Toyyibah, W.; Kurniawan, A.; Kusuma, H. (2024). Exploring the inclusivity of Jakarta's child-friendly integrated public spaces (RPTRA) through qualitative analysis of Google Map reviews. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. Vol. 1394, art. 012025. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1394/1/012025.
  • Sholihah, A.B.; Heath, T. (2016). "Assessing the Quality of Traditional Street in Indonesia: A case study of Pasar Baru Street". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 234 (7). Elsevier: 244–254. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.240.
  • Suryadjaja, R. (2012). Jakarta's Tourism Evolution: Shopping Center as Urban Tourism. The 5th International Forum on Urbanism. Barcelona. pp. 1–9. hdl:2099/12013.
  • Sutanto, E.; Junadi, P. (2018). "Kalijodo transformation in establishment of healthy environment in Jakarta". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 126 (1) 012216: 1–11. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/126/1/012216. ISSN 1755-1315.
  • Tjahjono, T.; Kusuma, A.; Septiawan, A. (2020). "The Greater Jakarta Area Commuters Travelling Pattern". Transportation Research Procedia. 47: 585–592. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2020.03.135.

Theses and dissertations

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  • Adam, Ahmat B. (1984). The Vernacular Press and the Emergence of Modern Indonesian Consciousness (1855-1913) (PhD thesis). SOAS University of London. doi:10.25501/SOAS.00033755.

Reports, studies and working papers

[edit]
  • Fleming, T. (2021). Indonesia: Jakarta (PDF) (Report). Cultural Cities Profile, East Asia. British Council. Retrieved 15 June 2026.

News and media

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[edit]

Official and institutional sources

[edit]
  • "Wisata Bersejarah" [Historical Tourism] (in Indonesian). Government of Jakarta. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2026.
  • "Sejarah Jakarta" [History of Jakarta]. Jakarta.go.id (in Indonesian). Government of Jakarta. Retrieved 20 September 2026.
  • "NRW Reduction". Jakarta Investment Centre. Government of Jakarta. Archived from the original on 23 June 2026. Retrieved 23 June 2026.
  • "Hasil Utama SKI 2023" [Key Results of the 2023 Indonesia Health Survey]. Badan Kebijakan Pembangunan Kesehatan (in Indonesian). Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 12 December 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2026.
  • "Bisnis Konsesi Jalan Tol" [Toll Road Concession Business]. PT Jasa Marga (Persero) Tbk (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 11 December 2025. Retrieved 1 April 2026.

Reference works and databases

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Further reading

[edit]
  • Heuken, A. (1999). Sumber-sumber asli sejarah Jakarta, Jilid I: Dokumen-dokumen sejarah Jakarta sampai dengan akhir abad ke-16 [Original sources of Jakarta's history, Volume I: Historical documents of Jakarta up to the end of the 16th century]. Vol. 1. Cipta Loka Caraka.
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