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Iraq–Kuwait relations

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Iraq-Kuwait relations)
Iraq–Kuwait relations
Map indicating locations of Iraq and Kuwait

Iraq
Kuwait

The relations between Iraq and Kuwait are longstanding and complex, experiencing many changes through recent decades.

History

[edit]

Ancient Era

[edit]

During the Ubaid period (6500 BC), Kuwait was the central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia,[1][2][3] including Bahra 1 and site H3 in Subiya.[1][4][5]

Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 BC[6][7][8] Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business.[6][7] The island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 BC.[6][7]

Antiquities of Failaka island

After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia,[9] and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon.[9] Many of the artifacts found in Failaka are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations.[10]

Under Nebuchadnezzar II, the bay of Kuwait was under Babylonian control.[11] Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population.[12] Babylonian kings were present in Failaka during the Neo-Babylonian Empire period; Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Failaka.[13][14] Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash, the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon.[14]

Classical Era

[edit]
Pre-Islamic Arab Kingdoms in Iraq and Kuwait.

In the 6th century BC, Mesopotamia, Failaka Island and the Bay of Kuwait were conquered by the Achaemenid Empire.[15]

By the 4th century BC, both regions came under the rule of Alexander the Great.[16][17][18]

In 141 BC, southern Iraq and Kuwait made up the Hellenistic Characene Kingdom, a Parthian vassal. Important cities spanned both countries, such as Teredon in Kuwait and Alexandria in Iraq.[19]

Between 293 and 602 AD, the regions continued to be a Persian vassal during the Lakhmid period.[20] The city of Kazma held most of Kuwait's urban population and fell under the direct rule of Al-Hirah in Iraq.[21][22]

Medieval Era

[edit]

In 636 AD, the Battle of Chains and Battle of al-Qadisiyyah brought both Iraq and Kuwait into the fold of the Rashidun Caliphate. At the time, Kuwait was under the control of the Sasanian Empire, ruled from Ctesiphon in Iraq.[23]

As a result of the Rashidun victory in 636 AD, the Bay of Kuwait and Kazma came under the control of the Muslims.[24][25][26] The city functioned as a trade port and resting place for pilgrims on their way from Iraq to Hejaz.[27][22][21] Basran poet Al-Farazdaq was born in Kazma.[28]

Early modern period

[edit]

In 1521, Kuwait was under Portuguese control and by 1529, Nuno da Cunha took control of Basra in Iraq.[29][30] Portuguese influence in both regions ended around the mid-17th century. Iraq and Kuwait were then conquered by the Ottomans in 1668. They would then be fought over by Turks and Persians in a series of repeated attempts at resistance over a century.[31]

The Basra Vilayet in 1899

The House of Al-Sabah, the current ruling family of Kuwait, were expelled from Umm Qasr in southern Iraq by the Ottomans due to their practice of preying on caravans in Basra and trading ships in the Shatt al-Arab.[32] According to oral tradition, the Al Sabah family settled across various regions in southern Iraq until they finally settled in what is now Kuwait around the mid-1700s.[33] During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–1779, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boatbuilding and trading activities.[34] As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed and the flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play a significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s.[35][36] In 1875, the Ottomans responded to local pressure from the Shi'as of the south by detaching the southern districts of the Baghdad vilayet and creating a new Vilayet of Basra.[37][38] Kuwait was considered to be an autonomous kingdom in the Vilayet of Basra up until 1913, despite the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899.[39] Kuwait and Iraq would both go on to be part of the British Empire after the Mesopotamian Campaign (1914-1918).[40]

Kingdom of Iraq Era

[edit]

In the 1930s, a popular movement emerged in Kuwait which called for the unification of the country with Iraq.[41] In 1938, this movement coalesced into the Free Kuwaiti Movement, established by Kuwaiti youths opposed to British influence in the region. The movement submitted a petition to the Iraqi government demanding that it support the unification of Kuwait and Iraq.[41][42] Fearing that the movement would turn into an armed rebellion, the Al-Sabah family agreed to the establishment of a legislative council to represent the Free Kuwaiti Movement and its political demands.[41] The council's first meeting in 1938 resulted in a unanimous resolution demanding the unification of Kuwait and Iraq.[41] The 1938 National Assembly was formally dissolved in 1939 after "one member, Sulaiman al-Adasani, in possession of a letter, signed by other Assembly members, addressed to Iraq's King Ghazi, requesting Kuwait's immediate incorporation into Iraq". This demand came after the merchant members of the Assembly attempted to extract oil money from Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, a suggestion refused by him and upon which he instigated a crackdown in which Assembly members were arrested in 1939.[43]

In March 1939, an armed rebellion broke out in Kuwait by supporters of the movement, seeking to unify Kuwait with Iraq by force.[41] Supported by the British, the Al-Sabah family rapidly suppressed the rebellion, imprisoning numerous supporters of the movement.[41] King Ghazi of Iraq publicly demanded that the prisoners be released and the Al-Sabah family end their repressive policies towards members of the Free Kuwaiti Movement.[41][42] King Ghazi died in April 1939 in an accident at the age of 27, involving a sports car that he was driving.[44] According to the scholars Ma'ruf al-Rusafi and Safa Khulusi, a common view by many Iraqis at the time was that he was killed on the orders of Nuri al-Said because of his plans for the unification of Iraq with Kuwait.

Attempts by King Faisal II of Iraq to build a railway to Kuwait and port facilities on the Persian Gulf were rejected by the United Kingdom. These and other similar British colonial policies made Kuwait a focus of the Arab national movement in Iraq, and a symbol of Iraqi humiliation at the hands of the British.[41]

Following renewed Iraqi claims to Kuwait during the mid-1950s, Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Sa'id reportedly raised the issue at a meeting of the Baghdad Pact in January 1958, advocating the incorporation of Kuwait into Iraq. According to some accounts, Iraq subsequently informed the British government that it intended to publish documents and memoranda concerning the dispute. These accounts further claim that British officials indicated they had "approved in principle" of unification and proposed a meeting in London between British and Iraqi leaders to finalize the matter. However, the meeting never took place, as the Iraqi monarchy was overthrown during the 14 July Revolution in 1958, in which King Faisal II and Nuri al-Sa'id were killed. Britain immediately thereafter abrogated the agreement, presumably due to Qasim's anti-British sentiment and opposition to foreign imperialism.[45]

Post-Kuwaiti Independence

[edit]

Ever since Kuwait's independence in 1961, successive Iraqi governments have sought various opportunities to reclaim and annex Kuwait. In 1961, a short-lived crisis evolved into Operation Vantage, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait; the invasion was averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against Iraqi designs on Kuwait.[46][47] The 1973 Sanita border skirmish evolved on 20 March 1973 when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near the Kuwaiti border, provoking an international crisis.[48] The relationship experienced a decade of thaw following the Iran–Iraq War, with Kuwait and other Gulf states supporting Iraq against Iran.[49]

Kuwaiti territory was temporarily annexed and proclaimed by Saddam Hussein as a governorate of Iraq during the Gulf War

Furthermore, in order to avoid a repeat of the 1939 rebellion, the Kuwait government has been accused of politically-motivated demographic engineering.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] In the three decades after independence in 1961, the Al-Sabah ruling family has permitted the forgeries of hundreds of thousands of politically-motivated naturalizations,[59][60] while simultaneously denying citizenship to Bedoon tribes from northern Kuwait (most belonging to the Muntafiq confederation) who are perceived to be of Iraqi origin, despite living in Kuwait before 1920.[61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69] The politically-motivated naturalizations were noted by the United Nations, political activists, scholars, researchers, and even members of the Al-Sabah family.[70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80] Kuwaiti authorities are estimated to have naturalized 400,000 Bedouin immigrants, predominantly Sunni Saudis from southern tribes.[81][82][83][84][85] The foreign Bedouin immigrants were mainly naturalized to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen population in a way that makes the power of the Al-Sabah ruling family more secure, as they are seen as more loyal than Bedoon groups.[86][87][88][89][90]

In 1990, Iraq had invaded Kuwait under a pretext of various reasons. The most commonly cited reason were Kuwait slant drilling into Iraq, GCC states refusing to forgive $37 billion worth of loans Iraq borrowed during the Iran-Iraq War and the overproduction of oil which kept revenues down for Iraq.[91][92] Saddam regarded this as a diplomatic betrayal, given that the war had inflicted an estimated 105,000–500,000 casualties and $561 billion in economic losses on Iraq, despite his claim that it had been fought to defend the Gulf states against Iranian expansionism.[93][94] Despite the UAE and Kuwait offering to lower oil production from 2m to 1.5m barrels and Kuwait offering to reimburse Iraq $500m for slant drilling, Saddam had already decided on the invasion, believing he had the tacit approval of the United States following a meeting with U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, who stated, "We have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait."[95][96][97]

The invasion started on 2 August 1990. Within two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti Armed Forces were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard or escaped to neighbouring Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. The state of Kuwait was annexed and proclaimed as Iraq’s 19th province. During the Gulf War, Kuwait would soon be liberated by coalition forces. In July 1992 the matter of border demarcation was referred to the United Nations, which accurately mapped the boundary and then demarcated it on the ground, following the 1932 line with some small adjustments.[98][99][100] The border initially was accepted by Kuwait but not Iraq.[99] Iraq accepted the border in November 1994.[101][102] Since the fall of the Ba'ath Party regime in Iraq, relations have significantly improved between the two states.

Smoke from burning Kuwait oil fields that Saddam Hussein ordered set fire to during the Gulf War

In the mid-to-late 2010s, Kuwait hosted the international Iraq reconstruction conference and was Iraq's biggest financial investor in the conference. On 19 June 2019, Emir of Kuwait Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah visited Iraq for the second time following the 2012 Arab League summit in Baghdad.[103]

In 2019, Iraq was Kuwait's leading export market, and agricultural products accounted for 94.2% of total export commodities.[104]

In August 2019, Iraq sent a protest letter to the United Nations regarding the geographical changes that the Government of Kuwait has made in the maritime area that lies beyond marker 162 in Khor Abdullah by upraising a shoal, which is designated as Fisht al-Aych; the letter also protested the installation of an observation tower at Fisht al-Aych.[105][106][107][108]

In March 2021, Iraq has so far paid $49.5 billion in war reparations to Kuwait while Iraq's dues now amount to only $2.5 billion.[109] On 13 January 2022, Iraq made its final reparations payment to Kuwait, with a claim of $52.4 billion being paid off.[110] In response, the United Nations Compensation Commission declared Iraq as having fully paid its compensation to Kuwait for the invasion and occupation.[111]

Kuwait's plans for economic development, such as the "Silk City project", involves developing mutually beneficial economic ties with Iraq.[112] Kuwait Vision 2035 entails the development of northern Kuwait (near the Iraq border and key Iraqi cities). Economic projects like the Abdali Economic Zone are designed to cater to Iraqi markets.

In February 2023, Kuwait's foreign minister Sheikh Salem Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah said Iraq and Kuwait would hold talks aimed at resolving the maritime border dispute between the two countries.[100]

On 4 September 2023, the Federal Supreme Court of Iraq annulled a law passed in 2013 that regulated navigation in the Khor Abdullah waterway between the two states, on the grounds that it should have been passed by a two-thirds majority in parliament instead of a simple majority. On 20 September 2023, a GCC-U.S. joint statement called for the complete demarcation of Kuwaiti-Iraqi maritime borders.[113]

Resident diplomatic missions

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 Robert Carter (2019). "The Mesopotamian frontier of the Arabian Neolithic: A cultural borderland of the sixth–fifth millennia BC". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 31 (1): 69–85. doi:10.1111/aae.12145.
  2. ↑ Robert Carter (25 October 2010). Maritime Interactions in the Arabian Neolithic: The Evidence from H3, As-Sabiyah, an Ubaid-Related Site in Kuwait. BRILL. ISBN 9789004163591.
  3. ↑ Robert Carter (2006). "Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC" (PDF). Antiquity. 80 (307): 52–63. doi:10.1017/s0003598x0009325x. S2CID 162674282.
  4. ↑ Robert Carter (2002). "Ubaid-period boat remains from As-Sabiyah: excavations by the British Archaeological Expedition to Kuwait". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 32: 13–30. JSTOR 41223721.
  5. ↑ Robert Carter; Graham Philip. "Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East" (PDF).
  6. 1 2 3 "Failaka Island - Silk Roads Programme". UNESCO.
  7. 1 2 3 "Traders from Ur?". Archaeology Magazine. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  8. ↑ Potts, Daniel T.. Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations. 1997
  9. 1 2 Potts, D.T. (2009). "The archaeology and early history of the Persian Gulf". In Lawrence G. Potter (ed.). The Persian Gulf in History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 35 – via Academia.
  10. ↑ Tétreault, Mary Ann. "Failaka Island: Unearthing the Past in Kuwait". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  11. ↑ "Brill's New Pauly: encyclopedia of the ancient world". 2007. p. 212.
  12. ↑ Ray, Himanshu Prabha; Ray (2003). Himanshu Prabha Ray (ed.). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN 9780521011099.
  13. ↑ Briant, Pierre (2002). Pierre Briant (ed.). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 761. ISBN 9781575061207.
  14. 1 2 Bryce, Trevor (2009). Trevor Bryce (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN 9781134159086.
  15. ↑ Bonnéric, Julie (2021). "Guest editors' foreword". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 32: 1–5. doi:10.1111/aae.12195. S2CID 243182467.
  16. ↑ Ralph Shaw (1976). Kuwait. Macmillan. p. 10. ISBN 9780333212479.
  17. ↑ "Middle East Annual Review". Middle East Annual Review. Walden Publishing Limited: 241. 1980. ISBN 9780904439106.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
  18. ↑ Kilner, Peter; Wallace, Jonathan (1979). The Gulf Handbook - Volume 3. Trade & Travel Publications. p. 344. ISBN 9780900751127.
  19. ↑ Gregoratti, Leonardo (2011). "A Parthian Harbour in the Gulf: the Characene". Anabasis, Studia Classica et Orientalia: 209–229. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022.
  20. ↑ Sauer, Eberhard (2017). Sasanian Persia: between Rome and the Steppes of Eurasia. Edinburgh studies in ancient Persia. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-1-4744-0101-2.
  21. 1 2 "New field work at Kadhima (Kuwait) and the archaeology of the Early Islamic period in Eastern Arabia". SOAS. Archived from the original on 25 November 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
  22. 1 2 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies Volumes 9–12. 1979. p. 53. Although the town of al-Hira might have been too far northward to be considered a part of Eastern Arabia it is dealt with here as such because the kingdom of al- Hira controlled Kazima (Kuwait).
  23. ↑ Kennet, Derek; Blair, Andrew; Al-Duwīsh, Sultan (2012). "Investigating an early Islamic landscape on Kuwait Bay: the archaeology of historical Kadhima". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 42. Archaeopress: 13–26 – via JSTOR.
  24. ↑ Dipiazza, Francesca Davis (2008). Francesca Davis DiPiazza (ed.). Kuwait in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 20–21. ISBN 9780822565895.
  25. ↑ Brian Ulrich. "Kāzimah remembered: historical traditions of an early Islamic settlement by Kuwait Bay". British Museum, Seminar for Arabian Studies.
  26. ↑ Kennet, Derek. "Investigating an Early Islamic Landscape on Kuwait Bay: the archaeology of historical Kadhima". Durham University.
  27. ↑ Brian Ulrich (January 2013). "From Iraq to the Hijaz in the Early Islamic Period: History and Archaeology of the Basran Hajj Road and the Way(s) through Kuwait". The Hajj: Collected Essays, ed. Venetia Porter and Liana Saif.
  28. ↑ "Farazdaq center lauds Info. Min. care for youth". Kuwait News Agency. 22 May 2014.
  29. ↑ "Kuwait: Prosperity from a Sea of Oil". G. Aloun Klaum. 1980. p. 30. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
  30. ↑ Livermore, H. V. (1947). A History of Portugal. University Press. p. 236.
  31. ↑ Matthee, Rudi (2006). "IRAQ iv. RELATIONS IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD". Encyclopaedia Iranica (Vol. XIII, Fasc. 5 and Vol. XIII, Fasc. 6). pp. 556–560, 561.
  32. ↑ "'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [1000] (1155/1782)". qdl.qa. 30 September 2014. p. 1000. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
  33. ↑ B. Slot (1991). The Origins of Kuwait. BRILL. pp. 70–71. ISBN 9004094091.
  34. ↑ Bennis, Phyllis; Moushabeck, Michel (31 December 1990). Phyllis Bennis (ed.). Beyond the Storm: A Gulf Crisis Reader. Olive Branch Press. pp. 42. ISBN 9780940793828.
  35. ↑ Thabit Abdullah (January 2001). Merchants, Mamluks, and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Basra. SUNY Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780791448076.
  36. ↑ Thabit Abdullah (January 2001). Merchants, Mamluks, and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Basra. SUNY Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780791448076.
  37. ↑ Reidar Visser (2005). Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism And Nationalism in Southern Iraq. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 18, 179. ISBN 978-3-8258-8799-5. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
  38. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bagdad" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 193–194.
  39. ↑ "The modern history of Kuwait in the 17th Century". The MENA Chronicle | Fanack. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  40. ↑ John de Vere Loder Baron Wakehurst (1923). The Truth about Mesopotamia, Palestine & Syria. G. Allen & Unwin Limited. p. 35. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Mechanisms of Western Domination: A Short History of Iraq and Kuwait", California State University, Northridge
  42. 1 2 Batatu, Hanna 1978. "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of its Communists, Ba'athists and Free Officers" Princeton p. 189
  43. ↑ Jill Crystal Oil and politics in the Gulf page 49
  44. ↑ Tripp, p.98.
  45. ↑ "Iraq & Kuwait". www.csun.edu. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  46. ↑ Helene von Bismarck, "The Kuwait Crisis of 1961 and its Consequences for Great Britain's Persian Gulf Policy" British Scholar, vol. II, no. 1 (September 2009) pp. 75-96
  47. ↑ Scott, Richard (20 June 1961). "Independence for Kuwait". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  48. ↑ "US diplomatic cable mentioning the incident". Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  49. ↑ "Kuwait's National Security Policy" (PDF). CIA. April 1988. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  50. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. pp. 100–110. ISBN 9781838605063. Political naturalizations of tribesmen
  51. ↑ Claire Beaugrand. "Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959-2009" (PDF). p. 137. Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics
  52. ↑ Frederic Wehrey, ed. (February 2018). Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East. Oxford University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780190911195. To counter the strong influence of Arab nationalism in the decades after independence in 1961, Kuwait naturalized more than 200,000 Bedouin tribesmen to serve as a reliable pro-government bloc in parliament.
  53. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  54. ↑ Michael Herb (18 December 2014). The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801454684. How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure
  55. ↑ "Human Rights Council, Forty-sixth session, 22 February–19 March 2021, Agenda item 3, Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development. Written statement* submitted by International Council. Supporting Fair Trial and Human Rights, a nongovernmental organization in special consultative status. The Secretary-General has received the following written statement which is circulated in accordance with Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31". United Nations. 17 February 2021. p. 2. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021.
  56. ↑ Gwenn Okruhlik (8 February 2012). "The identity politics of Kuwait's election". Foreign Policy.
  57. ↑ Justin Gengler (29 August 2016). "The Political Economy of Sectarianism in the Gulf". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  58. ↑ John Warner (17 April 2013). "Questioning Sectarianism in Bahrain and Beyond: An Interview with Justin Gengler". Jadaliyya.
  59. ↑ "IV. DISCRIMINATION BASED ON ORIGIN AND STATUS: THE BIDUN". Human Rights Watch. 2000.
  60. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. pp. 100–110. ISBN 9781838605063. Political naturalizations of tribesmen
  61. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. pp. 100–110. ISBN 9781838605063. Political naturalizations of tribesmen
  62. ↑ Claire Beaugrand. "Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959-2009" (PDF). p. 137. Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics
  63. ↑ Frederic Wehrey, ed. (February 2018). Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East. Oxford University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780190911195. To counter the strong influence of Arab nationalism in the decades after independence in 1961, Kuwait naturalized more than 200,000 Bedouin tribesmen to serve as a reliable pro-government bloc in parliament.
  64. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  65. ↑ Michael Herb (18 December 2014). The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801454684. How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure
  66. ↑ "Human Rights Council, Forty-sixth session, 22 February–19 March 2021, Agenda item 3, Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development. Written statement* submitted by International Council. Supporting Fair Trial and Human Rights, a nongovernmental organization in special consultative status. The Secretary-General has received the following written statement which is circulated in accordance with Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31". United Nations. 17 February 2021. p. 2. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021.
  67. ↑ Gwenn Okruhlik (8 February 2012). "The identity politics of Kuwait's election". Foreign Policy.
  68. ↑ Justin Gengler (29 August 2016). "The Political Economy of Sectarianism in the Gulf". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  69. ↑ John Warner (17 April 2013). "Questioning Sectarianism in Bahrain and Beyond: An Interview with Justin Gengler". Jadaliyya.
  70. ↑ "Human Rights Council, Forty-sixth session, 22 February–19 March 2021, Agenda item 3, Promotion and protection of all human rights, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to development. Written statement* submitted by International Council. Supporting Fair Trial and Human Rights, a nongovernmental organization in special consultative status. The Secretary-General has received the following written statement which is circulated in accordance with Economic and Social Council resolution 1996/31". United Nations. 17 February 2021. p. 2. Archived from the original on 4 August 2021.
  71. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. pp. 100–110. ISBN 9781838605063. Political naturalizations of tribesmen
  72. ↑ Claire Beaugrand. "Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959-2009" (PDF). p. 137. Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics
  73. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  74. ↑ Michael Herb (18 December 2014). The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801454684. How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure
  75. ↑ Frederic Wehrey, ed. (February 2018). Beyond Sunni and Shia: The Roots of Sectarianism in a Changing Middle East. Oxford University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9780190911195. To counter the strong influence of Arab nationalism in the decades after independence in 1961, Kuwait naturalized more than 200,000 Bedouin tribesmen to serve as a reliable pro-government bloc in parliament.
  76. ↑ Mohammad E. Alhabib (2010). The Shia Migration from Southwestern Iran to Kuwait: Push-Pull Factors during the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Thesis). Georgia State University. p. 46.
  77. ↑ Gwenn Okruhlik (8 February 2012). "The identity politics of Kuwait's election". Foreign Policy.
  78. ↑ Andrzej Kapiszewski (2005). "Non-indigenous citizens and "stateless" residents in the Gulf monarchies. The Kuwaiti bidun" (PDF). p. 70.
  79. ↑ Justin Gengler (29 August 2016). "The Political Economy of Sectarianism in the Gulf". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  80. ↑ Sheikh Sabah Al-Mohammad Al-Sabah (10 February 2018). "اتقوا الله وجنِّسوا الكويتيين البدون". Al-Shahed Newspaper (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 4 March 2021.
  81. ↑ Sheikh Sabah Al-Mohammad Al-Sabah (10 February 2018). "اتقوا الله وجنِّسوا الكويتيين البدون". Al-Shahed Newspaper (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 4 March 2021.
  82. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  83. ↑ John Warner (17 April 2013). "Questioning Sectarianism in Bahrain and Beyond: An Interview with Justin Gengler". Jadaliyya.
  84. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  85. ↑ Claire Beaugrand. "Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959-2009" (PDF). p. 137. Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics
  86. ↑ Andrzej Kapiszewski (2005). "Non-indigenous citizens and "stateless" residents in the Gulf monarchies. The Kuwaiti bidun" (PDF). p. 70.
  87. ↑ Michael Herb (18 December 2014). The Wages of Oil: Parliaments and Economic Development in Kuwait and the UAE. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801454684. How then do we explain the naturalizations that have occurred in the Gulf states in the past, such as the granting of citizenship to thousands of bedu (bedouin) by Kuwait in the 1960s and 1970s? Typically these naturalizations were imposed by the ruling families and were designed to alter the demographic makeup of the citizen society in a way that made the power of the ruling families more secure
  88. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. pp. 100–110. ISBN 9781838605063. Political naturalizations of tribesmen
  89. ↑ Claire Beaugrand. "Statelessness and Transnationalism in Northern Arabia: Biduns and State Building in Kuwait, 1959-2009" (PDF). p. 137. Extra-Legal Naturalisations and Population Statistics
  90. ↑ Rivka Azoulay (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. Bloomsbury. p. 21. ISBN 9781838605063.
  91. ↑ "Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait; 1990". Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
  92. ↑ Gause, F. Gregory III (2005). "The International Politics of the Gulf" in Louise Fawcett (ed.), "International Relations of the Middle East". Oxford: The University Press. pp. 263–274. ISBN 0-19-926963-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  93. ↑ Hiro, Dilip (1991). The Longest War: The Iran–Iraq Military Conflict. New York: Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-415-90406-3. OCLC 22347651.
  94. ↑ "Igniting Iraq's Invasion of Kuwait – Loans, Land, Oil and Access – Association for Diplomatic Studies & Training". Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  95. ↑ Ibrahim, Youssef M.; Times, Special To the New York (26 July 1990). "Iraq Said to Prevail in Oil Dispute With Kuwait and Arab Emirates". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  96. ↑ "DefenseLink News Article: The Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm Timeline". www.defenselink.mil. Archived from the original on 26 May 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  97. ↑ "Saddam Hussein: The Last Great Tyrant". archive.globalpolicy.org. Retrieved 2 August 2026.
  98. ↑ "Final Report on the Demarcation of the International Boundary Between the Republic of Iraq and the State of Kuwait by the United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Boundary Demarcation Commission" (PDF). Legal Office of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 1993. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 January 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  99. 1 2 Harry Brown (October 1994). "The Iraq-Kuwait boundary dispute: historical background and the UN decisions of 1992 and 1993". IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  100. 1 2 Irish, John (18 February 2023). "Kuwait foreign minister sees progress on maritime border with Iraq". Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2023.
  101. ↑ "Iraq". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2000. Archived from the original on 11 December 2000. Retrieved 1 September 2021.
  102. ↑ Crossette, Barbara (11 November 1994). "Iraqis to accept Kuwait's borders". The New York Times. p. A1. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015.
  103. ↑ "Kuwait emir in Iraq amid tension over suspected tanker attacks". aljazeera. 19 June 2019.
  104. ↑ "Kuwait: Market Profile". Hong Kong Trade Development Council. 30 April 2021.
  105. ↑ Bader Al-Saif. "Think Big: Why Broadening Negotiations Could Help Resolve the Kuwaiti-Iraqi Maritime Dispute". The Malcolm H. Kerr Carnegie Middle East Center.
  106. ↑ "Letter dated 7 August 2019 from the Permanent Representative of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council". United Nations. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  107. ↑ UK, Integrity. "Ku-wait Right There! Iraq Accuses Kuwait of Infringing Shared Maritime Borders – Integrity UK". Retrieved 20 December 2021.
  108. ↑ Bahr Aluloom, Mohammed Hussein (2019). "Letter dated 7 August 2019 from the Permanent Representative of Iraq to the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council" (PDF). United Nations Security Council.
  109. ↑ "Iraq says paid $50 bln in war reparations to Kuwait". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  110. ↑ "Governing Council of the United Nations Compensation Commission Holds Special Session to Mark the Fulfilment of its Mandate | ONU GENEVE". www.ungeneva.org. 9 February 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  111. ↑ "Iraq makes final reparation payment to Kuwait for 1990 invasion". UN News. 9 February 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
  112. ↑ Nader Habibi (4 June 2018). "The Foreign Policy Implications of Kuwait's Vision 2035: Closer Economic Ties with Iran and Iraq". Payvand. Archived from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
  113. ↑ "GCC countries, US call for demarcation of Kuwaiti-Iraqi maritime borders". Reuters. 20 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
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