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// Workers AI · dad joke modeWhy was the German monarch's chair so important? It was the throne.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from German king)

German kingdom (blue) in the Holy Roman Empire around 1000

This is a list of monarchs who ruled over East Francia, later known as the Kingdom of Germany (Latin: Regnum Teutonicum), from the division of the Frankish Empire in 843 and the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 until the collapse of the German Empire in 1918.

General notes

[edit]
  • The Frankish kingdom was split by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The rulers of the eastern area thus called themselves rex Francorum ("king of the Franks"), rex Francorum orientalium ("king of the East Franks"), and later just rex. A reference to the "Germans", indicating the emergence of a German nation of some sort, did not appear until the late 11th century, when the pope began to refer to his enemy Henry IV as rex teutonicorum (another exonym for Germans) in order to brand him as a foreigner. The kings reacted by consistently using the title rex Romanorum, king of the Romans, to emphasize their universal rule even before becoming emperor. This title remained until the end of the Empire in 1806, though after 1508 emperors-elect added "king in Germany" to their titles. In this and related entries, the kings and are called kings of Germany for clarity's sake.
  • The Kingdom of Germany was never entirely hereditary; rather, ancestry was only one of the factors that determined the succession of kings. During the 10th to 13th centuries, the king was formally elected by the leading nobility in the realm, continuing the Frankish tradition. Gradually the election became the privilege of a group of princes called electors, and the Golden Bull of 1356 formally defined election proceedings.[1]
  • In the Middle Ages, the king did not assume the title "emperor" (from 982 the full title was Imperator Augustus Romanorum, Venerable Emperor of the Romans) until crowned by the pope. Moving to Italy, he was usually first crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, after which he assumed the title of rex Italiae, king of Italy. After this, he would ride on to Rome and be crowned emperor by the pope.
  • Regnal numbers were not formally adopted until the late Middle Ages. Many of the early Frankish monarchs shared names and even nicknames. For example, Emperor Louis IV is enumerated after the three previous emperors named Louis, while King Louis IV is enumerated after the three previous kings named Louis, even though they were all members of the same family. Both German and French monarchs saw themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, hence why he and Louis the Pious, both emperors, are enumerated as "Charles I" and "Louis I" in both lists. Emperors beginning with Emperor Lothair III, who was actually the second emperor of that name, abandoned any distinction in numbering between his rule as king and his rule as emperor.
  • Maximilian I was the first king to bear the title of emperor-elect. After his march to Rome for his Imperial coronation failed in 1508, he had himself proclaimed emperor-elect with papal consent.[2] His successor Charles V also assumed that title after his coronation in 1520 until he was crowned emperor by the pope in 1530. From Ferdinand I onwards, all emperors did not get crowned by the Pope anymore. At the same time, chosen successors of the emperors held the title of king of the Romans, if elected by the college of electors during their predecessor's lifetime.
  • The list is heavely intertwined with lists of Holy Roman Emperors and Austrian rulers until the 19th century. The German state of Prussia formally established Germany as a nation-state in 1871.

Emperors are listed in bold.

East Francia (843–962)

[edit]

Carolingian dynasty

[edit]
Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Louis II "the German"
Ludwig		 c. 10 August 843 — 28 August 876 Son of Louis the Pious and grandson of Charlemagne.
De jure subordinate king under emperors Lothair I (r. 840–855), Louis II (r. 855–875) and Charles II (r. 875–877).		 [3]

Non-contemporary		 Carloman "the Bavarian"
Karlmann		 28 August 876 — November 879 Son of Louis the German, ruled as king of Bavaria. Also became king of Italy after the death of Emperor Charles II, who ruled Italy and West Francia, in October 877. Abdicated the throne and died of an illness shortly after, on 20 March 880. [4]

Non-contemporary		 Louis III "the Saxon"
Ludwig		 — 20 January 882 Son of Louis the German, initially king of Saxony. Inherited Carloman's territories in Bavaria in November 879. [5]
Charles III "the Fat"
Karl		 12 February 881 c. 17 November 887 Son of Louis the German, initially king of Alemannia, then crowned King of Italy (March 880) and Roman Emperor (February 881). Became sole king of East Francia in January 882, and also king of West Francia after the death of Carloman II in December 884, briefly reunited the Carolingian Empire before being deposed. [6]
Arnulf
Arnulf		 c. 27 November 887 25 April 896 8 December 899 Illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria and Duke of Carinthia, took power after a coup against Charles the Fat. Also king of Italy. [7]

[8]


Non-contemporary		 Louis IV "the Child"
Ludwig		 8 December 899 — 24 September 911 Son of Arnulf of Carinthia; sometimes called "Louis III". [9]

[10]

Conradine dynasty

[edit]
Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Conrad I
Konrad		 10 November 911 — 23 December 918 Elected by the nobility [11]

Ottonian dynasty

[edit]
  (§) – Rival king that never ruled unopposed
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Henry I "the Flowler"
Heinrich		 c. 12 May 919 — 2 July 936 Elected by the nobility [12]
— Arnulf "the Evil"
Arnulf		 919 — 921 Rival king to Henry I, member of the Luitpoldings [13]

Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)

[edit]

The title "King of the Romans", used in the Holy Roman Empire, denoted a ruler elected by the German princes whose authority was primarily exercised over the Germanic-speaking territories of the empire. While no formal “King of Germany” existed, the king’s election and governance effectively corresponded to that of a monarch over these lands. After election, the king would traditionally proceed to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope.

Ottonian dynasty (continued)

[edit]
Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Otto I "the Great" 2 July 936 2 February 962 7 May 973 Son of Henry I; first king crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Lothair I; crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 [14]
Otto II "the Red" 26 May 961
(co-king)		 25 December 967
(co-emperor)
7 May 973
(senior emperor)		 7 December 983 Son of Otto I; first king and then emperor under his father. [15]

[16]

Otto III 25 December 983 21 May 996 21 January 1002 Son of Otto II [17]
Henry II "the Saint"
Heinrich		 7 June 1002 14 February 1014 13 July 1024 Great-grandson of Henry I [18]

Salian dynasty

[edit]
  (#) – Junior king
  (§) – Rival king that never ruled unopposed
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Conrad II "the Salic"
Konrad		 8 September 1024 26 March 1027 4 June 1039 Great-great-grandson of Otto I [19]
Henry III
Heinrich		 14 April 1028 25 December 1046 5 October 1056 Son of Conrad II;
King (of the Germans?)[20] under his father 1028–1039		 [21]
Henry IV
Heinrich		 17 July 1054 21 March 1084 31 December 1105 Son of Henry III;
King of Germany under his father, 1054–1056		 [22]
Rudolf of Rheinfelden 15 March 1077 — 15 October 1080 Rival king to Henry IV; member of the Rheinfeld. [23]
Hermann of Salm 6 August 1081 — 28 September 1088 Rival king to Henry IV; member of the Salm family. [24]
Conrad of Italy
Konrad		 30 May 1087 — 27 July 1101 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1087–1098,
King of Italy, 1093–1098, 1095–1101 in rebellion.		 [25]
Henry V
Heinrich		 6 January 1099 13 April 1111 23 May 1125 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1099–1105, forced his father to abdicate		 [26]

Supplinburger dynasty

[edit]
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Lothair III
Lothar III.		 13 September 1125 4 June 1133 4 December 1137 Was Lothair II of Germany, but Lothair III of Italy.

Gave rise to the Guelph faction, named after his heir and son-in-law Henry the Proud of the House of Welf

 [27]

Hohenstaufen dynasty

[edit]
  (#) – Junior king
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Conrad III
Konrad III.		 7 March 1138 — 15 February 1152 Grandson of Henry IV (through his mother);
Previously rival king to Lothair III 1127–1135[a]		 [28]
Henry Berengar
Heinrich (VI.)		 30 March 1147 — 1150 Son of Conrad III;
King of Germany under his father 1147–1150		 [29]
Frederick I "Barbarossa"
Friedrich I.		 4 March 1152 18 June 1155 10 June 1190 Nephew of Conrad III [30]
Henry VI
(Heinrich VI.)		 15 August 1169
(as co-king)		 15 April 1191 28 September 1197 Son of Frederick I; crowned co-king at the age of 3. [31]
Frederick II
Friedrich II.		 1196 — 1198 Son of Henry VI;
King of Germany under his father 1196–1198		 [32]
Philip of Swabia
Philipp II.		 8 March 1198 — 21 June 1208 Son of Frederick I; elected rival king to Otto IV
Called himself "Philip II," after the Roman emperor Philip the Arab.		 [33]
Otto IV 9 June 1198 21 October 1209 1215 Great-grandson of Lothair III, member of the House of Welf; later opposed by Frederick II; deposed in 1215; died on 19 May 1218 [34]
Frederick II
Friedrich II.		 5 December 1212 22 November 1220 26 December 1250 Son of Henry VI;
Rival king to Otto IV until 5 July 1215		 [35]

[36]

Henry (VII)
Heinrich (VII.)		 23 April 1220 — 4 July 1235 Son of Frederick II; crowned co-king at the age of 10 [37]

[38]

Conrad IV
(Konrad IV.)		 February 1237 — 21 May 1254 Son of Frederick II;
King of Germany under his father, 1237–1250		 [39]

Interregnum

[edit]
  (§) – Rival king that never ruled unopposed
Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Henry Raspe
Heinrich Raspe		 Ludovingians 22 May 1246 — 16 February 1247 Rival King to Frederick II and great-great-great-grandson of Henry IV [40]
William of Holland
Wilhelm		 Holland 3 October 1247 — 28 January 1256 Rival King to Frederick II and Conrad IV 1247–1254; unopposed 1254-1256

Married Elisabeth of the House of Welf in January 1252 to gain support of the Guelph faction

 [41]
Richard of Cornwall Plantagenet 13 January 1257 — 2 April 1272 Brother-in-law of Frederick II and first-cousin of Otto IV, held little real authority[note 1]

Supported by the Guelph faction

 [42]
Alfonso X of Castile Ivrea 1 April 1257 21 August 1257
(self-proclaimed)		 1275 Grandson of Philip of Swabia; rival king to Richard of Cornwall; he held no authority and never went to Germany

Supported by the Ghibelline faction, but lost their support when he was opposed by Rudolf I in 1273

Relinquished claims in 1275

 [43]

[44]

Changing dynasties

[edit]
  (#) – Junior king
  (§) – Rival king that never ruled unopposed
Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Rudolf I Habsburg 1 October 1273 — 15 July 1291 First of the Habsburgs [45]
Adolf Nassau 5 May 1292 — 23 June 1298 According to some historians, Adolf's election was preceded by the short-lived kingship of Conrad, Duke of Teck. See his article for details. [46]
Albert I
Albrecht I.		 Habsburg 27 July 1298 — 1 May 1308 Son of Rudolf I; Rival king to Adolf of Nassau, 1298 [47]
Henry VII
Heinrich VII.		 Luxembourg 27 November 1308 29 June 1312 24 August 1313 First emperor since the death of Frederick II in 1250. [48]
Louis IV "the Bavarian"
Ludwig IV.		 Wittelsbach 20 October 1314 17 January 1328 11 October 1347 Grandson of Rudolf I; rival king to Frederick the Fair, 1314–1322 [49]
Frederick "the Fair"
Friedrich		 Habsburg 19 October 1314/
5 September 1325		 — 28 September 1322/
13 January 1330		 Son of Albert I;
rival king to Louis IV, 1314–1322;
associate king with Louis IV, 1325–1330		 [50]
Charles IV Wenceslaus
Karl IV.		 Luxembourg 11 July 1346 5 April 1355[b] 29 November 1378 Grandson of Henry VII; rival king to Louis IV, 1346–1347;
also King of Bohemia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor		 [51]
Günther Schwarzburg 30 January 1349 — 26 May 1349 Rival king to Charles IV [52]
Wenceslaus of Bohemia
Wenzel		 Luxembourg 10 June 1376
(junior king)
29 November 1378
(senior king)		 — 20 August 1400 Son of Charles IV; king of Germany under his father 1376–1378; deposed 1400;
also by inheritance King of Bohemia; died 1419 		[53]
Rupert of the Palatinate
Ruprecht		 Wittelsbach 21 August 1400 — 18 May 1410 Great-grandnephew of Louis IV [54]
Sigismund Luxembourg 20 September 1410 31 May 1433 9 December 1437 Son of Charles IV. Also King of Bohemia-Croatia and prince-elector of Brandenburg. [55]

[56]

Jobst of Moravia Luxembourg 1 October 1410 — 8 January 1411 Nephew of Charles IV; elected rival king to Sigismund [57]

Habsburg dynasty

[edit]
Image Coat of arms Name King Emperor Ended Notes Ref.
Albert II
Albrecht II.		 18 March 1438 — 27 October 1439 4th in descent from Albert I; son-in-law of Sigismund. Also Duke of Austria [58]
Frederick III
Friedrich III.		 2 February 1440 19 March 1452 19 August 1493 4th in descent from Albert I; 2nd cousin of Albert II. His 53-year reign was the longest of any German monarch. Also ruled as duke of Inner Austria since 1424, amounting to a total reign of 69 years. [59]

[60]

Maximilian I 16 February 1486 4 February 1508 12 January 1519 Son of Frederick III; King of Germany under his father, 1486–1493; assumed the title "Elected Emperor" in 1508 with the pope's approval [61]
Charles V
Karl V.		 28 June 1519 3 August 1556[c] Grandson of Maximilian I; was also King of Spain, Archduke of Austria, and ruler of several other territories. Reigned over a massive empire, but abdicated and divided his realm before his death on 21 September 1558. Last Emperor to receive the imperial coronation from the Pope. [68]
Ferdinand I 5 January 1531
(under Charles V)		 3 August 1556
(de facto)
14 March 1558
(de jure)		 25 July 1564 Grandson of Maximilian I; brother of Charles V; King of Germany under his brother Charles V 1531–1556; last king to be crowned in Aachen Cathedral. [69]
Maximilian II 30 November 1562
(under Ferdinand I)		 25 July 1564 12 October 1576 Son of Ferdinand I;
King of Germany under his father 1562–1564		 [70]
Rudolf II 27 October 1575
(under Maximilian II)		 12 October 1576 20 January 1612 Son of Maximilian II;
King of Germany under his father, 1575–1576		 [71]
[72]
Matthias 13 June 1612 20 March 1619 Son of Maximilian II [73]
[72]
Ferdinand II 28 August 1619 15 February 1637 Grandson of Ferdinand I [74]
[72]
Ferdinand III 22 December 1636 15 February 1637 2 April 1657 Son of Ferdinand II;
King of Germany under his father 1636–1637		 [75]
[72]
Ferdinand IV 31 May 1653
(under Ferdinand III)		 — 9 July 1654 Son of Ferdinand III;
King of Germany under his father		 [76]
Leopold I 18 July 1658 5 May 1705 Son of Ferdinand III; elected after an interregnum of 17 months. [77]
[72]
Joseph I 23 January 1690
(under Leopold I)		 5 May 1705 17 April 1711 Son of Leopold I; King of Germany under his father 1690–1705 [78]
[72]
Charles VI
Karl VI.		 12 October 1711 20 October 1740 Son of Leopold I; also claimed the throne of Spain [79]
[80]
Charles VII
Karl VII.		 24 January 1742 20 January 1745 Member of the House of Wittelsbach. Great-great-grandson of Ferdinand II; Husband of Maria Amalia, daughter of Joseph I [81]
Francis I
Franz I.		 13 September 1745 18 August 1765 Husband of Maria Theresa. Member of the House of Lorraine. [82]
Joseph II 27 March 1764
(under Francis I)		 18 August 1765 20 February 1790 Son of Maria Theresa and Francis I; King of Germany under his mother and father 1764–1765 [83]
[84]
Leopold II 30 September 1790 1 March 1792 Son of Maria Theresa and Francis I [85]

[86]

Francis II
Franz II.		 5 July 1792 6 August 1806 Son of Leopold II; also Emperor of Austria 1804–1835 as Francis I and later President of the German Confederation 1815–1835; died 1835 [87]
[88]
[89]

Modern Germany (1806–1918)

[edit]

Following the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, modern-day Germany was reorganized into the Confederation of the Rhine and later the German Confederation. In 1871, Prussia ended the unification of Germany, excluding the Habsburg monarchy from the process. For earlier rulers of Prussia, see List of Prussian monarchs.

Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)

[edit]
Name Portrait Title House Began Ended Ref.
Napoleon Bonaparte,
Emperor of the French
King of Italy		 Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine
Bonaparte		 12 July 1806 19 October 1813 [90][91]
Karl Theodor von Dalberg,
Prince-Archbishop of Regensburg
Grand Duke of Frankfurt		 Prince-primate of the
Confederation of the Rhine
Dalberg		 [92][93]

German Confederation (1815–1866)

[edit]
Name Portrait Title House Began Ended Ref.
Francis I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz I., Kaiser von Österreich)		 Head of the presiding power
(Präsidialmacht) Austria
Habsburg-Lorraine		 20 June 1815 2 March 1835 [94]
Ferdinand I,
Emperor of Austria
(Ferdinand I., Kaiser von Österreich)		 2 March 1835 12 July 1848 [94]
Archduke John of Austria
(Erzherzog Johann von Österreich)		 Regent (Reichsverweser)
of the revolutionary German Empire		 12 July 1848 20 December 1849 [95]
[96]
[97]
Frederick William IV,
King of Prussia
(Friedrich Wilhelm IV., König von Preußen)		 Emperor-elect of the Germans
(unrecognized by himself)
Hohenzollern		 28 March 1849 28 April 1849 [98]
[99]
[100]
Presidium of the Union
(Unionsvorstand) of the Erfurt Union		 26 May 1849 29 November 1850
Francis Joseph I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich)		 Head of the presiding power
(Präsidialmacht) Austria
Habsburg-Lorraine		 29 November 1850 23 August 1866 [101]

North German Confederation (1866–1871)

[edit]
Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Wilhelm I,
King of Prussia
(Wilhelm I, König von Preußen)		 Holder of the Bundespräsidium of the
North German Confederation
Hohenzollern		 18 August 1866 1 January 1871

German Empire (1871–1918)

[edit]
Name Portrait House Term began Term ended
Wilhelm I
Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig
Hohenzollern		 1 January 1871 9 March 1888
Friedrich III
Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl		 9 March 1888 15 June 1888
Wilhelm II
Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert		 15 June 1888 9 November 1918[d]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Elected anti-king at Nuremberg on 18 December 1127 and crowned on 29 June 1128; submitted to the emperor on 29 September 1135, in Mühlhausen, Thuringia.
  2. ↑ He was crowned King of Italy on 6 January 1355.
  3. ↑ Charles abdicated several times between 1555 and 1558. His first abdication was on 3 August 1556.[62][63] On 27 August, Charles wrote a document to the Imperial court in Speyer (referred to as a Constitutio or Rescriptum) renouncing the Empire in favour of Ferdinand.[64][65] Immediately before departing for Spain, on 7 September, he sent an edict to all States of the Empire, urging them to recognise Ferdinand as their new ruler.[64][66] The official transfer of power happened on 14 March 1558.[67]
  4. ↑ His abdication was announced by the Chancellor on 9 November, the same day in which the Republic was proclaimed. However, he did not formally abdicate until 28 November.
  1. ↑ He was crowned in Aachen Cathedral by the Archbishop of Cologne in 1257, campaigned in the Rhineland with his German allies to liberate the elector of Cologne, organised the Diet of Worms of 1269 and married in the same year in Kaiserslautern with Beatrice of Falkenburg, but only resided in Germany in 1257, 1258, 1260, 1262, 1263, 1268 and 1269. He remained in England during the Second Barons' War in support of his brother and spent a period during the years 1264 and 1265 in the captivity of the English barons. The remainder of his reign he resided in England.

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Germany - Britannica Educational Publishing
  2. ↑ Terjanian, Pierre, ed. (2 October 2019). The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-674-7. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
  3. ↑ "Ludwig der Deutsche". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  4. ↑ "Karlman". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  5. ↑ "Louis III". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 22 March 2024.
  6. ↑ "Karl III". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  7. ↑ "Arnulf". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  8. ↑ "Arnulf". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  9. ↑ "Ludwing das Kind". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  10. ↑ "Louis IV". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 22 March 2024.
  11. ↑ "Konrad I." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  12. ↑ Böhmer, Johann Friedrich. (1893). Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Herrschern aus dem Sæchsischen Hause, 919-1024. p. 4. "Der wahltag ist nicht überliefert... er fallt vielmehr zwischen 12. und 24. mai 919". [The day of the election is not recorded... but it falls between 12 and 24 May 919]
  13. ↑ "Arnulf (Herzog von Bayern)". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  14. ↑ "Otto I. der Große". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  15. ↑ Van Houts, Elisabeth (2014). Anglo-Norman Studies. Vol. XXXVII. Boydell & Brewer. p. 84. ISBN 978-1783270248.
  16. ↑ "Otto I." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  17. ↑ "Otto III." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  18. ↑ "Henry II". www.britannica.com.
  19. ↑ "Konrad II." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  20. ↑ Medieval Europeans: studies in ethnic identity and national perspectives in medieval Europe By Alfred P. Smyth, Palgrave Macmillan (1998), p. 64
  21. ↑ "Heinrich III." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  22. ↑ "Heinrich IV." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  23. ↑ "Rudolf von Rheinfelden." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  24. ↑ "Hermann von Salm." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  25. ↑ "Konrad." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  26. ↑ "Heinrich V." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  27. ↑ "Lothar III. (von Supplinburg)." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  28. ↑ "Konrad III." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  29. ↑ Houts, Elisabeth M. C. van (2015). Proceedings of the Battle Conference 2014. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-1-78327-024-8.
  30. ↑ "Frederick I". www.britannica.com.
  31. ↑ "Heinrich VI." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  32. ↑ Kamp, N (1995). "Federico II di Svevia, imperatore, re di Sicilia e di Gerusalemme, re dei Romani". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Vol. 45. Treccani. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
  33. ↑ "Philipp von Schwaben." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  34. ↑ "Otho IV." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  35. ↑ "Frederick II". www.britannica.com.
  36. ↑ Huffman, Joseph P. (2024). Medieval Cologne: From Rhineland Metropolis to European City (A.D. 1125–1475). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-3-11-157114-0.
  37. ↑ "Heinrich (VII.)". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  38. ↑ "Heinrich (VII.), römischer König", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie
  39. ↑ "Konrad IV." Neue Deutsche Biographie
  40. ↑ "Heinrich Raspe". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  41. ↑ "William". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  42. ↑ "Richard von Cornwall". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  43. ↑ Kinkade, Richard P. (2020). Dawn of a Dynasty: The Life and Times of Infante Manuel of Castile. University of Toronto Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-1-4875-0460-1.
  44. ↑ Rivero, Isabel (1982). Compendio de historia medieval española (in Spanish). Ediciones AKAL. p. 175. ISBN 978-84-7090-125-6.
  45. ↑ "Rudolf I." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  46. ↑ "Adolf von Nassau". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  47. ↑ "Adolf von Nassau". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  48. ↑ "Heinrich VII". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  49. ↑ "Ludwing der Bayer". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  50. ↑ "Frederick (III)". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  51. ↑ "Karl IV. (Taufname Wenzel)". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  52. ↑ "Günther, Graf von Schwarzburg-Blankenburg". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  53. ↑ "Wenzel (deutscher König)". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  54. ↑ "Ruprecht (III.) von der Pfalz". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  55. ↑ "Sigismund von Luxemburg". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  56. ↑ "Sigmund (Kaiser)". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  57. ↑ "Jost". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  58. ↑ "Albrecht II." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  59. ↑ "Habsburg, Friedrich V. der Friedfertige". Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich.
  60. ↑ Frederick III. Encyclopedia Britannica.
  61. ↑ "Maximilian I". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  62. ↑ The Abdication of Emperor Charles V / Kaiserliche Instruktion für die Abdikationsgesandtschaft zu Ferdinand I. und zu den Kurfürsten. German History in Documents and Images.
  63. ↑ Archiv für österreichische Geschichte (in German). Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 1901. pp. 314–316. Instruktion für die Abdikationsgesandtschaft (Instruction for the Abdication Mission)
  64. 1 2 Bernard, Jacques (1700). Recueil Des Traitez De Paix, De Treve, De Neutralite, etc (in French). Henry Et La Veuve De T. Boom. p. 276.
  65. ↑ Lünig, Johann Christian (1720). Das deutsche Reichs-Archivs (in German). Vol. 4. pp. 355–356. Rescriptum to the Chamber-Judges and Assessors of the Holy Imperial Chamber Court in Speyer, in which he refers them to the Roman King Ferdinandum I as their future ruler.
  66. ↑ Lünig, Johann Christian (1711). Das deutsche Reichs-Archiv (in German). Vol. 6. pp. 288–289. Edictum to all Electors and States of the Holy Roman Empire, that he entrusted his lord brother, the Roman King Ferdinand I, with the rule of the German Reich.
  67. ↑ Wahlkapitulation Ferdinands I, Frankfurt am Main, 14. März 1558 V&R eLibrary
  68. ↑ "Karl V". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  69. ↑ "Ferdinand I". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  70. ↑ "Maximilian II". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  71. ↑ "Rudolf II". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  72. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brinckmeier, Eduard (1882). "Verzeichniß der deutschen Kaiser und Könige von Karl dem Großen" [List of German Emperors and Kings from Charlemagne onwards]. Praktisches handbuch der historischen chronologie aller zeiten und völker, besonders des mittelalters (in German). G. Hempel. pp. 271–312.
  73. ↑ "Matthias". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  74. ↑ "Ferdinand II". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  75. ↑ "Ferdinand III". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  76. ↑ "Ferdinand IV". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  77. ↑ "Leopold I". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  78. ↑ "Joseph I". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  79. ↑ "Karl VI". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  80. ↑ "Karl VI". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  81. ↑ "Karl VII". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  82. ↑ "Franz I". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  83. ↑ "Joseph II". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  84. ↑ Joseph on his own election: Maria Theresia und Joseph II: ihre Correspondenz (1867). pp. 50-51; 73-74.
  85. ↑ "Leopold II., Kaiser". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  86. ↑ Coxe, William (1847). History of the House of Austria, from the Foundation of the Monarchy by Rhodolph of Hapsburgh to the Death of Leopold II: 1218 to 1792: In Three Volumes. G. Bohn. p. 551.
  87. ↑ "Election of Francis II, 5 July 1792".
  88. ↑ "Abdication of Francis II as Holy Roman Emperor".
  89. ↑ "Franz II". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  90. ↑ Treaty establishing the Confederation of the Rhine.
  91. ↑ Potter, George Richard; Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph; Wernham, Richard Bruce; Cooper, J. P.; Carsten, Francis Ludwig; Crawley, C. W.; Bromley, John Selwyn; Lindsay, J. O.; Goodwin, Albert (1995). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 9, War and Peace in an Age of Upheaval, 1793-1830. Cambridge University Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-521-04547-6.
  92. ↑ "Dalberg, Carl Theodor Anton Maria von". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  93. ↑ "Dalberg, Carl Theodor Freiherr von". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
  94. 1 2 Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, p. 589.
  95. ↑ Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, pp. 625–627, 808.
  96. ↑ Cook, Chris; Paxton, John (1978). European Political Facts, 1848-1918. Springer. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-349-02019-5.
  97. ↑ Mosslang, Markus; Riotte, Torsten; Schulze, Hagen (2006). British Envoys to Germany 1816-1866: Volume 3: 1848-1850. Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-521-87252-2.
  98. ↑ Winkler, Heinrich August (2006). Germany: 1789-1933. Oxford University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-19-926597-8.
  99. ↑ Elected Emperor of the Germans by the Frankfurt National Assembly on 28 March 1849, but refused the crown on 28 April 1849. Manfred Botzenhart: Deutscher Parlamentarismus in der Revolutionszeit 1848–1850. Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977, pp. 697/698.
  100. ↑ Anlage II: Additional-Akte zu dem Entwurf der Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs. In: Thüringer Landtag Erfurt (ed.): 150 Jahre Erfurter Unionsparlament (1850–2000) (= Schriften zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus in Thüringen. H. 15) Wartburg Verlag, Weimar 2000, ISBN 3-86160-515-5, S. 27–44, here pp. 185–187.
  101. ↑ "Franz Joseph". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
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