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The Imperial-Royal Landwehr (German: kaiserlich-königliche Landwehr or k.k. Landwehr), also called the Austrian Landwehr, was the territorial army of the Cisleithanian or Austrian half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1869 to 1918. Its counterpart was the Royal Hungarian Landwehr (k.u. Landwehr). The two Landwehrs, together with the Common Army and the Imperial and Royal Navy, made up the armed forces (Bewaffnete Macht or Wehrmacht) of Austria-Hungary. While the name, "Imperial-Royal", might seem to suggest a link between the "Imperial" (Cisleithanian) and "Royal" (Transleithanian or Hungarian) halves of the Empire, in this context "Royal" actually refers to the Kingdom of Bohemia (Königreich Böhmen or České království) - not a sovereign kingdom on par with the Kingdom of Hungary, but a crownland of Cisleithanian Austria-Hungary and possession of the Habsburgs, who remained formally entitled to kingship. In this sense, the Kingdom of Bohemia was comparable in status to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and the Kingdom of Dalmatia.
Unlike the German Empire, where the Landwehr mainly comprised reservists and volunteers, the Imperial-RoyalLandwehr consisted of regular units. It was fully established with regular troops and not partly mobilized or cadred. The Landwehr should not be confused with the Landsturm which was a volunteer militia.[1]
The building of the former Imperial Royal Franz Joseph Landwehr Academy in Vienna
The roots of the Landwehr go back to the 16th century when there were calls on all able-bodied men to defend their country.
During the Napoleonic Wars a Landwehr was established[2] by imperial decree dated 9 June 1808 as a standing and common institution to complement the regular Austrian army. This army was used in 1809 and in 1813/14. In 1859, the Landwehr was abolished.
As a consequence, the Cisleithanian counterpart of the Honved, known as the Imperial-Royal Landwehr, was established in the "kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat", i.e. the remaining Empire of Austria. Its tasks were finally confirmed in 1889 in the Austrian Defence Act (RGBl. 41/1889) as follows:
§ 4. The Landwehr is tasked in time of war to support the Army and to defend the homeland; in peacetime, and by exception, also to maintain law and order and security of the homeland.
In § 14 Wehrgesetz 1889 the annual recruiting quota for the Landwehr was set at 10,000 men.
Conscription in the Landwehr was from age 21 up to 32 and included two or three years on active duty. The one-year volunteer served just one year, but received no wages and had to pay for their own equipment. After age 32, conscripted Landwehr soldiers were transferred to the Landsturm militia. As there were more conscripts available than were needed, a lot decided who was assigned to the army, who to the militia and who to the reserve.
Discharge certificate issued to Dr. Robert Korn, lieutenant in the reserve of the k.k. Landwehr (1911)
The monarch became the supreme warlord, holding all authority over the structure, organization, and administration of the army. He appointed the senior officials, had the right to declare war, and was the commander-in-chief of the army.
The Landwehr's "March No. 1", which Beethoven composed in 1808, as the "March of the Bohemian Landwehr" (Marsch der böhmischen Landwehr), is known nowadays as the Yorck March (Yorckscher Marsch). As an element of the Grand Tattoo, performed e.g. by the Bundeswehr, it is now one of the best known German military marches.
The Imperial-Royal Landwehr initially had no colours. However, in September 1915, Emperor Franz Joseph I granted the authority for the "M 1915" colours in recognition of "exceptionally meritorious achievements" by the Imperial Landwehr, which was then manufactured under the supervision of the Army Museum in 1916. These were to be handed over to the various regiments after the war. The process was regulated by the ordinances of the Imperial-Royal Landwehr, Standard Regulations, Part 22, dated 8 September 1915, in which the procedure for the award of colours was laid down by Special Order (Zirkularverordnung) 4 Sep 1915, Presentation No. 14,256. For this, the following letter was issued:
"His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty, in gracious recognition of late of the exceptionally meritorious achievements by the Imperial Royal Landwehr, which fought throughout the recent war alongside troops of the Imperial and Royal Army, demonstrating stalwart and faithful discharge of duty before the enemy, and repeatedly earning the very highest tribute, graciously condescends to permit the Imperial Royal Landwehr troops to bear colours. In view of the design and material requirements of these colours, as well as their production and ceremonial presentation, they will only be available after the end of the war. This very highest act of grace is intended to spur the troops of the Imperial Royal Landwehr further to new deeds of heroism and, of course by further brilliant performance against the enemy, will prove they are worthy, time and again, of this most high honour!"
Freiherr von Georgi m.p.
General of Infantry
The colours were not issued during the period of the monarchy, but only later to traditional units. How many of these colours were made is not known. Records show that at least the colours of the 2nd Linz Landwehr Infantry Regiment were transferred to the Kameradschaftsbund ehemaliger Zweierschützen ("2nd Rifles Old Comrades Association") in Linz on 8 June 1924. Also the existence of the colours of the 1st Vienna Imperial Royal Landwehr Infantry Regiment are known to have existed.
Service dress jacket of a 1st lieutenant in the k.k. Landwehr Rifles
The k.k. State Ministry of Defence was located in Vienna at Babenbergerstraße 5. The Landwehr high command was housed on the first floor of the former Imperial Department of Justice at Schillerplatz 4. Landwehr staffs and the Landwehr Base Command were quartered in private homes. During the First World War, the k.k. Ministry of Defence was responsible under the War Office for homeland defence.
The Landwehr barracks in Vienna were the Kaiserebersdorf Landwehr Artillery Barracks, the Emperor Franz Josef Landwehr Barracks and Siebenbrunnengasse Landwehr Barracks. Next to the last-named barracks was the Landwehr Equipment Depot. The Imperial-Royal Landwehr Arms Depot was the Arsenal in Vienna.
The Imperial-Royal Landwehr (k.k. or kaiserlich österreichisch/königlich böhmisch) was the standing army of Austria responsible for the defence of Austria itself. Its order of battle at the outbreak of the First World War was as follows:[3]
37 infantry regiments - each of 3 battalions (4th with 5 bns, 23rd with 2 bns, and 27th with 4 bns)
4 Tyrolian rifle regiments (Tiroler Landesschützen Regimenter) (1st, 2nd and 4th with three battalions and the 3rd with 4 battalions) - from January 1917 named "imperial rifles" (Kaiserschützen)
Although the Landwehr infantry regiments were weaker in personnel than Imperial and Royal Infantry regiments (Landwehr regiments had just three battalions instead of the usual four in the Common Army - exceptions were the 1st and 3rd State Rifle Regiments who also had four battalions), they were often superior in terms of equipment. The parliaments of Cisleithania and Transleithania were rather more willing, to support "their" troops with financial resources than the common army.
A special feature was the title of the Landwehr regiments, which bore the name of the garrison location of their regimental staff (e.g. 6th Eger Landwehr Infantry Regiment - k. k. Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiment "Eger" Nr. 6). The same was true of the state's rifle units, which also belonged to the Landwehr (3rd Innichen State Rifle Regiment - k.k. Landesschützen-Regiment „Innichen“ Nr. III). In this way, the closeness of each regiment with its garrison was emphasized.
On 11 April 1917 the infantry units of the Landwehr were renamed. The title "Landwehr" was replaced by "Schützen" ("Rifles"). The changes were as follows:
(Commander: Feldmarschalleutnant (FML) Eduard Edler von Kreysa, Chief of Staff (CoS): Captain (General Staff Corps) Heinrich Mazanee Edler von Engelhardswall) (Landwehr Command in Vienna)
(Innsbruck) (FML Heinrich Tschurtschenthaler von Helmheim, CoS: Major (General Staff Corps) Ludwig Ritter Ehrlich von Treuenstätt) (Home Defence Command in Innsbruck)
The infantry regiment consisted of only 3 battalions instead of the usual 4 found in the Common Army. The garrison name is always the location of regimental HQ.
Landwehr barracks in České Budějovice[A] - The 4th Infantry belonged to the Imperial-Royal Mountain Corps. From 11 April 1917 it was called the 1st Imperial-Royal Mountain Rifle Regiment. Contrary to Landwehr dress regulations it wore uniform based on the pattern of the State Rifles with an edelweiss on the collar, but with a number 4 above the hunting horn on their caps instead of the Tyrolean eagle.
[B] The 27th Infantry belonged to the Imperial-Royal Mountain Corps. From 11 April 1917 it was retitled to the 2nd Imperial-Royal Mountain Rifle Regiment. Contrary to Landwehr dress regulations it wore uniform based on the pattern of the State Rifles with an edelweiss on the collar, but with a number 27 on the hunting horn on their caps instead of the Tyrolean eagle.
Landwehr Regiments and their composition by nationality
From 1906 the state rifles became the Imperial-Royal Mountain Corps[6] and were renamed the Kaiserschützen ("Emperor's Rifles") in 1917. They were given various titles depending on the period.
1st Imperial-Royal State Rifle Regiment (Trient) (k.k. Landesschützen-Regiment „Trient“ Nr. I)
2nd Imperial-Royal State Rifle Regiment (Bozen) (k.k. Landesschützen-Regiment „Bozen“ Nr. II)
3rd Imperial-Royal State Rifle Regiment (Innichen) (k.k. Landesschützen-Regiment „Innichen“ Nr. III)
Landwehr infantry wore the hat of the rifle corps (Jägertruppe) as their parade headdress: a matt black hat of waterproof felt. It consisted of the crown and brim adorned with a hatband of green cord, a hunting horn and a hackle or plume of black cock feathers. The hat cord was made of sheep's wool, had a button and, at each end, an acorn covered with green wool and braided at the ends. The two acorns were attached to the rear of the hat crown. The cord for officers was made of interwoven black and gold thread.
The crown was in the shape of an oval cone, with a slight dent at the top. The brim was flat in front and behind, but "snapped up" on both sides. The brim was edged with black, varnished calfskin.
On the left side of the crown, there was a rearward, tilted socket for attaching the hackle. The hat badge - of gold-coloured metal - was a hunting horn. The battalion number in nickel silver was set in the centre formed by the loop of the horn. The badge was fastened over the socket for the feathers so that the number was inclined at the same angle as the socket. The hackle was formed in the shape of a rooster's tail around a 1.5mm thick piece of steel wire. The length of the hackle was 29cm. The hackle was inserted into the socket on the hat such that the feathers were swept back in an arc.
On the march the Landwehr used the normal infantryfield cap (Feldkappe).
The uniform jacket (Waffenrock) of the Landwehr infantry - for officers and men - was on average the same as that of the infantry. The other ranks jacket was made of pike grey (hechtgrau) cloth with epaulettes, shoulder trim, collar and cuffs of grass-green colour. The buttons for all regiments were white and marked with the battalion number.
The shirts worn by the Landwehr infantry were of the same colour as the jacket with grass-green gorget patches to indicate their arm of service. Their remaining usual items of dress were no different from those of the line infantry.
Trousers were of pike grey cloth and cut long in accordance with the regulations for German regiments. The trousers of the officers had grass-green lampasses; NCOs and other ranks had grass-green piping along the side seam.
Dress variations for 4th and 27th Infantry
The uniforms of the 4th and 27th Infantry were an exception to the Landwehr infantry regulations; instead, they had the same dress pattern as the State Rifles.
The parade hat was no different from that of the Landwehr infantry and, in marching order, they used the infantry field cap. One special feature was a small, forward-sloping pocket on the left side of the cap into which a spray of black grouse feathers was fixed. On individual hats the feathers could be fixed directly to the cap in order that the white feathers could be displayed to best effect.
The uniform jacket of the two regiments was, like the State Rifles jackets - both for officers and men - cut in two rows unlike the infantry and had two rows each of eight silver buttons. The buttons bore the regimental number in Arabic numerals. The soldiers' jackets were made of pike grey material and had grass-green epaulettes, shoulder bars, collars and cuffs. On the collars there was a matt white edelweiss on each side, behind the rank badge (Distinktionsabzeichen).
The rifleman's shirt was the same colour as his jacket; the arm of service being signified by grass-green gorgets (Parolis). There were also other differences in the uniform compared with that of the infantry units of the Imperial and Royal Army.
The trousers were the same pattern as those of the Landwehr infantry.
The history of Austro-Hungarian forces is documented in detail in the Military History Museum in Vienna, which was founded by Emperor Franz Joseph I as the Imperial-Royal Court Armaments Museum (k.k. Hofwaffenmuseum). In a special display cabinet in Hall V (the Franz Joseph Hall) of the museum, several uniforms of the Imperial Royal Landwehr are displayed, a relief on the rear of the cabinet shows the territories from which the Hungarian Honvéd and Imperial-Royal Landwehr recruited.[7]
↑In 1917 the term Landwehr was replaced in the infantry by Schützen, for example "Landwehr Infantry Regiment" = "Schützen Regiment" i.e. "Rifle Regiment"
↑Rothenberg, Gunther E.; Keegan, John (2000). The Napoleonic Wars. The Cassell history of warfare. London: Cassell. p.118. ISBN978-0-304-35267-8.
12The Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War I (1) Osprey Men-at-Arms 392 by Peter Jung p.23, 2001 ISBN1-84176-594-5
↑The word Truppen which was commonly used as in Landwehr Infanterie-Truppendivision and Infanterie-Truppendivision, was discontinued.
↑The names in brackets were also dropped in 1918, but no-one stopped using them, especially as the existing letterheads and stamps had to be used up first.
↑In addition they were joined by the 4th and 27th Landwehr Infantry
↑Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck: Das Heeresgeschichtliche Museum Wien. Saal VI - Die k.(u.)k. Armee von 1867-1914, Vienna, 1989, p. 25.
Heinz von Lichem: Spielhahnstoß und Edelweiß – die Friedens- und Kriegsgeschichte der Tiroler Hochgebirgstruppe „Die Kaiserschützen“ von ihren Anfängen bis 1918. Leopold Stocker Verlag, Graz, 1977. ISBN3-7020-0260-X.
Heinz von Lichem: Der Tiroler Hochgebirgskrieg 1915–1918. Steiger Verlag, Berwang (Tyrol), 1985. ISBN3-85423-052-4.
Anton Graf Bossi Fedregotti: Kaiserjäger – Ruhm und Ende: nach dem Kriegstagebuch des Oberst von Cordier. Stocker Verlag, Graz, 1977. ISBN3-7020-0263-4.
Carl Freiherr von Bardolff: Soldat im alten Österreich – Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben. Diederichs Verlag, Jena, 1938.
Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck, Erich Lessing: Die K.(u.)K. Armee 1848–1918. Bertelsmann Verlag, Munich, 1974.
Oskar Brüch, Günter Dirrheimer: Das k. u. k. Heer 1895 (= Schriften des Heeresgeschichtlichen Museums in Wien (Militärwissenschaftliches Institut), Band 10), Stocker Verlag, Graz, 1997. ISBN3-7020-0783-0.
Rest, Ortner, Ilmig: Des Kaisers Rock im 1. Weltkrieg – Uniformierung und Ausrüstung der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee von 1914 bis 1918. Verlag Militaria, Vienna, 2002. ISBN3-9501642-0-0.
Andreas Danner, Martin Prieschl, Johannes Heubel, Für Gott, Kaiser und Oberösterreich - das k.k. Landwehrinfanterieregiment Linz Nro. 2, in: 50 Jahre Wiedererrichtung Garnison Ried - Tapfer, standhaft und treu, Ried im Innkreis 2008, pp.142 – 144;
Thomas Reichl: Die österreichische Landwehr 1809, in: Viribus Unitis. Jahresbericht des Heeresgeschichtlichen Museums 2009, Vienna, 2009, ISBN978-3-902551-15-3
k.u.k. Kriegsministerium: Dislokation und Einteilung des k.u.k. Heeres, der k.u.k. Kriegsmarine, der k.k. Landwehr und der k.u. Landwehr in: Seidel's kleines Armeeschema, Hrsg. Seidel & Sohn, Vienna, 1914
k.u.k. Kriegsministerium: Adjustierungsvorschrift für das k.u.k. Heer, die k.k. Landwehr, die k.u. Landwehr, die verbundenen Einrichtungen und das Korps der Militärbeamten, Vienna, 1911/1912
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