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Alp Arslan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Arp Aslan)

Alp Arslan
Father of Courage[3]
Miniature from the Majma al-Tawarikh by Hafiz Abru circa 1425; which depicts accession to the throne by Alp Arslan
Sultan of the Seljuk Empire
Reign4 October 1063 – 15 December 1072
PredecessorTughril I
SuccessorMalik-Shah I
Born20 January 1029
(1 Muharram 420 AH)[4]
Died24 November 1072(1072-11-24) (aged 43)
(10 Rabiʻ I 465 AH)
Barzam Fortress, near Amu Darya, Khwarezm
Spouse
  • Safariyya Khatun
  • Akka Khatun
  • Shah Khatun
  • Ummu Hifchaq
Issue
DynastySeljuk Dynasty
FatherChaghri Beg
ReligionSunni Islam

Alp Arslan (Persian: آلپ ارسلان; full name: Muhammad Alp Arslan bin Dawud Chaghri)[5] was the second sultan of the Seljuk Empire and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponymous founder of the dynasty and the empire. He reigned from 1063 until his assassination in 1072.[6]

Alp Arslan greatly expanded Seljuk territories and consolidated his power, defeating rivals to the south, east, and northwest. His victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 ushered in the Turkoman settlement of Anatolia. For his military achievements, he earned the name Alp Arslan, which means "Heroic Lion" in Turkish.[6]

Early life

[edit]

Historical sources differ regarding Alp Arslan's birth date. Some 12th- and 13th-century sources give 1032/1033 as his birth year, while later sources give 1030. According to İbrahim Kafesoğlu, the most likely date is 20 January 1029 (1 Muharram 420 AH), recorded by the medieval historian Ibn al-Athir.[4]

Alp Arslan was the son of Chaghri Beg and nephew of Tughril, the founding sultans of the Seljuk Empire. His grandfather was Mikail, who in turn was the son of the warlord Seljuk. He was the father of numerous children, including Malik-Shah I and Tutush I.[7] It is unclear who the mother or mothers of his children were. He was known to have been married at least twice. His wives included the widow of his uncle Tughril, a Kara-Khanid princess known as Aka or Seferiye Khatun, and the daughter or niece of Bagrat IV of Georgia (who would later marry his vizier, Nizam al-Mulk).[8] One of Seljuk's other sons was the Turkic chieftain Arslan Isra'il, whose son, Kutalmish, contested his nephew's succession to the sultanate. Alp Arslan's younger brothers Suleiman ibn Chaghri and Qavurt were his rivals. Kilij Arslan, the son and successor of Suleiman ibn Kutalmish (Kutalmish's son, who would later become Sultan of Rûm), was a major opponent of the Franks during the First Crusade and the Crusade of 1101.[9]

Campaigns and battles

[edit]
Coin minted in the name of Alp Arslan with the title Shahanshah
A miniature depicting Alp Arslan. Rashid al-Din, Jami' al-tawarikh, 1654 Ottoman copy, Topkapi Museum.[10]

Alp Arslan accompanied his uncle Tughril on campaigns in the south against the Fatimids, while his father Chaghri remained in Khorasan. Upon Alp Arslan's return to Khorasan, he began his work in administration at his father's suggestion. While there, his father introduced him to Nizam al-Mulk, one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history and Alp Arslan's future vizier.[11]

Defense of Tokharistan (1043–44)

[edit]

After the Khwarazm campaign he undertook alongside Tughril, Chaghri Beg launched another expedition against the Ghaznavids. He besieged the city of Herat, which had fallen out of Musa Yabghu's control following a Ghaznavid attack. However, he fell ill after a while and was forced to lift the siege. Meanwhile, although the Ghaznavid army under the command of Sultan Mawdud launched another offensive and achieved some success, they were routed by the Seljuk army commanded by Malik Ertash, and the Seljuks captured Herat through a counterattack.[12] Another the Ghaznavid army under the command of Sultan Mawdud attack was repelled by Malik Alp Arslan, who was stationed in Balkh. Due to his illness, Chaghri Beg was unable to command the battles against the Ghaznavids. Therefore, he appointed his son, Alp Arslan, in his place. Taking action, Alp Arslan defeated the Ghaznavids.[13][14] Later, the Seljuk army, which launched an attack under the command of Alp Arslan and Chaghri Beg, captured the cities of Termez, Kubadhiyan, Vakhsh, Kunduz (Valvalic), held by the Ghaznavids, and other Tokharistan lands held by the Ghaznavids.[15]

First Campaign against the Kara-Khanids

[edit]

Ghaznavid Sultan Mawdud attacked Seljuk territories in 1043-44 and returned to his country defeated in the struggle he had started. After this defeat, he decided to attack the Seljuks once again. This time, instead of attacking alone, he began searching for allies for his campaign against the Seljuks. To this end, he proposed an alliance to the Kara-Khanid ruler Arslan Khan (Ibrahim ibn Nasr) and the Buyid Emir Abu Kalijar. These two rulers accepted Ghaznavid Sultan Mawdud's alliance offer and mobilized their armies in 1048-49.[16] The Seljuks, meanwhile, were occupied with defense preparations against the enemy armies. Chaghri Beg was at the head of these defense preparations. The army that had departed from Ghazni was forced to turn back due to Sultan Mawdud falling ill.[12] Taking advantage of this allied attack, the Seljuk governor of Khwarezm rebelled. Chaghri Beg had to launch a campaign to Khwarezm; he arrived in Urgench and suppressed the rebellion.[17] The Kipchaks, who were supporters of the Ghaznavids, also took advantage of this situation and attacked Khwarezm. Upon the Kipchaks attack on Khwarezm, Chaghri Beg dispatched an army against them. The Seljuk army sent by Chaghri Beg fought the Kipchak army commanded by Haşaka near Urgench and defeated the Kipchaks. Another allied army, the Buyids, suffered heavy losses on the desert route they had taken. Thus, the Ghaznavids and the Buyids returned to their lands without entering into any struggle with the Seljuks.[12] Unaware of the events that had befallen the Buyids and Ghaznavids, Arslan Khan entered Seljuk territory with his army and occupied Termez. Having conquered Termez, Arslan Khan turned his route toward Balkh and marched forth. Upon receiving the news that Arslan Khan had attacked Seljuk lands, Alp Arslan marched against Arslan Khan with his army. Alp Arslan emerged victorious in the battle that took place between the two armies. Arslan Khan, on the other hand, crossed the Amu Darya river and retreated to Bukhara. Later, Arslan Khan made a peace offer to Chaghri Beg, and as a result of this request, Chaghri Beg accepted the peace proposal. A peace treaty was signed between the two parties.[17][18][12]

First Campaign in Fars

[edit]

In 1050, Sultan Tughril launched a campaign against the Buyids. Isfahan, which belonged to the Buyids, was besieged, and military expeditions were organized against the Fars province, which was under Buyid rule. One of the Seljuk commanders who led a campaign into the Fars province was Malik Alp Arslan. Alp Arslan conducted this expedition in complete secrecy from everyone. While his uncle, Sultan Tughril, was preoccupied with the siege of Isfahan, Alp Arslan secretly departed from the city of Merv in the Khorasan province and attacked the Buyid-controlled Fars province. Conquering a large part of the Fars province Alp Arslan[19] also captured the Buyid city of Fasa located within this province, taking 3,000 prisoners[20]. Following these successes, Alp Arslan swiftly returned to Khorasan to avoid receiving any orders from his uncle, Sultan Tughril, who was completely unaware of his presence in the Fars province. [21][22]

Defense of Khorasan (1053)

[edit]

By the order of Sultan Abd al-Rashid, the Ghaznavid Emir Toghrul Bozan attacked Sistan, which was under Seljuk rule. Musa Yabghu, who was stationed in Sistan, was defeated by the Ghaznavid Emir Toghrul Bozan and abandoned Sistan, retreating to Herat. Having raised a new army in Herat, Musa Yabghu marched against the Ghaznavids occupying Sistan, accompanied by his son Böri (Kara Arslan) and his vizier Abu'l-Fazl. Upon receiving news that Musa Yabghu was advancing on Sistan with a new army, the Ghaznavid Emir Toghrul Bozan abandoned the region and returned to Ghazni. Arriving in Ghazni, Emir Toghrul Bozan rebelled against Sultan Abd al-Rashid with the intention of usurping the throne. Successful in his rebellion, Emir Toghrul Bozan overthrew Sultan Abd ur-Rashid and seized power. Reacting to this usurpation by Emir Toghrul, Kirghiz, one of the Ghaznavid commanders, killed Emir Toghrul and placed Farrukh-Zad from the Sabuktigin Dynasty on the throne in his stead. Taking advantage of the internal turmoil caused by this civil war within the Ghaznavid Empire, the Seljuks, under the leadership of Chaghri Beg, launched a campaign against the Ghaznavids and advanced as far as Bost. Sultan Farrukh-Zad dispatched his commander Kirghiz against Chaghri Beg, who had reached Bost. In the battle that took place near Bost, Chaghri Beg was defeated and forced to retreat. Later, acting on Sultan Farrukh-Zad's orders commander Kirghiz attacked Seljuk territories, defeating the Seljuk army under the command of Atabeg Gul-Sarigh as well as other Seljuk forces he clashed with, and took their commanders captive. Faced with this dire situation for the Seljuks, Malik Alp Arslan sought permission from his father, Chaghri Beg, to launch an attack on the Ghaznavids. Chaghri Beg responded favorably to his son Alp Arslan's request. Having obtained his father's permission, Alp Arslan marched against the Ghaznavids with his army. In the ensuing battle between the two sides, Alp Arslan routed the Ghaznavid forces commanded by Kirghiz. Following this battle, a prisoner exchange took place between the two sides, and a peace treaty was signed.[23][24][25]

Rebellion of Ibrahim Inal and the Battle of Rey (1059)

[edit]

Following his Baghdad campaign in 1055, Sultan Tughril wanted to launch an expedition against the Buyid commander Arslan al-Basasiri. However, when Malik Resultegin, the brother of Qutalmish, rebelled, Sultan Tughril became occupied with suppressing the uprising. Resultegin was taken prisoner after the rebellion was crushed. At the request of Caliph Al-Qa'im, Sultan Tughril pardoned him.[26] After the suppression of Resultegin's rebellion, rumors spread that the Governor of Mosul, Malik Ibrahim Inal, was also planning to rebel. According to the news reaching Baghdad, Ibrahim Inal had left Mosul and headed to the Jibal region, and some Turkmens had followed him there.[27] As soon as Sultan Tughril, who was in Baghdad, received this news, he dispatched one of his commanders, Savtegin, to Malik Ibrahim Inal as an envoy bearing valuable gifts. Savtegin presented these gifts to Malik Ibrahim Inal and also conveyed the sultan's orders for him to come to Baghdad. Ibrahim Inal went to Baghdad following the sultan's orders, and Emir Aytekin, Emir Erdem, Emir Yaruktekin, and Hajib Boritekin were appointed to the military commands of Northern Iraq in his place.[26] Seizing the opportunity created by Ibrahim Inal's departure and the reduced number of troops in the region, the Buyid commander Arslan al-Basasiri attacked and captured Mosul. Upon hearing that Mosul had fallen to the Buyids, Sultan Tughril launched a second expedition against the city. However, when Arslan al-Basasiri learned of Sultan Tughril's approach, he inflicted damage on the city and abandoned it. Determined to pursue Arslan al-Basasiri, Sultan Tughril continued his advance and reached as far as Nusaybin. When Sultan Tughril arrived in Nusaybin, Ibrahim Inal, having secured the backing of the Fatimids and Arslan al-Basasiri, marched with his troops to the city of Hamadan, which housed the Seljuk arsenals and treasuries. Upon learning that Ibrahim Inal was heading to Hamadan, Sultan Tughril abandoned his pursuit of al-Basasiri and dispatched a portion of his troops to Baghdad to defend against a potential Buyid attack. He then mobilized with a small number of soldiers and reached Hamadan before Ibrahim Inal. Ibrahim Inal's army grew in size when his nephews, Mehmed and Ahmed (the sons of Malik Ertash), arrived with their troops to support him. He clashed with Sultan Tughril near Hamadan and defeated him. Following his defeat, Sultan Tughril retreated to the fortress of Hamadan. In the wake of his victory, Ibrahim Inal laid siege to the fortress where Sultan Tughril had taken refuge. Finding himself in a dire situation, Sultan Tughril sent message to request aid from his wife Altun Jan Khatun and his Vizier al-Kunduri in Baghdad, as well as his brother Chaghri Beg in Khorasan. The predicament facing Sultan Tughril and the news that Arslan al-Basasiri was marching on Baghdad with Fatimid support sparked chaos in the city. Although Vizier Al-Kunduri wanted to install Sultan Tughril's stepson Anushirvan as sultan, Altun Jan Khatun refused to allow it. She imprisoned her son Anushirvan and issued an arrest warrant for Vizier Al-Kunduri. Altun Jan Khatun then set out for Hamadan with the soldiers stationed in Baghdad.[28] Meanwhile, the Turkmens abandoned the siege of the fortress of Hamadan to loot the treasury. Seizing this opportunity, the besieged Sultan Tughril left the city and made his way to the capital, Rey. Sultan Tughril's forces were reinforced when his nephews Alp Arslan, Qavurt, and Yakuti arrived to support him.[29] Ibrahim Inal pursued Sultan Tughril and also arrived at Rey with his army. The two armies clashed near Rey on August 3, 1059 and the rebellious Malik Ibrahim Inal and his forces were decisively defeated. The defeated Ibrahim Inal, Ahmed, and Mehmed were personally taken prisoner by Malik Alp Arslan. Following the battle near Rey, Malik Alp Arslan handed his captives Ibrahim Inal, Mehmed, and Ahmed over to his uncle, Sultan Tughril. Sultan Tughril did not pardon his rebellious brother Ibrahim Inal this time, as his final attempt at rebellion had caused a grave danger. He also refused to pardon Ahmed and Mehmed, and in accordance with old Turk traditions, he had all three of them strangled with a bowstring.[26][28][30]

Second Campaign against the Kara-Khanids (1059)

[edit]

In 1059, Chaghri Beg, the Seljuk Malik of Khorasan, died and was succeeded by his son, Alp Arslan. During his years as the Malik of Khorasan, he invaded Kara-Khanid territories and plundered many cities. Alp Arslan launched his first attack on Kara-Khanid lands in 1059.[31] He conquered Khuttal and Chaghaniyan, which were under Kara-Khanid rule, and began organizing campaigns into Kara-Khanid territory via these two cities.[32] Struggling against Alp Arslan's attacks, the Kara-Khanid ruler Tamghach Khan Ibrahim sent an envoys to Baghdad in 1061.[33] Through this envoys, he complained about Alp Arslan to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llāh in Baghdad. In response to Tamghach Khan's request, the Caliph could only grant him khilat and epithet. However, the Caliph was unable to do anything to stop Alp Arslan.[34]

Campaign in Khuttal (1063)

[edit]

Upon receiving news of the rebellion of the Khuttal Emir, Alp Arslan set out on an expedition against Khuttal.[35] The Seljuk army, under the command of Alp Arslan, laid siege to the Hulbuk Castle,[36] the center of Khuttal. The Hulbuk Castle was built on a mountain and was fortified, which made the first attacks ineffective. Later, as a result of an attack in which Alp Arslan also participated, the Khuttal Emir was killed. Later, the Hulbuk Castle was captured by the Seljuks. Alp Arslan appointed one of his own men as emir to Khuttal.[37][38][39]

Battle of Herat (1063)

[edit]

After the death of Tughril, Musa Yabghu captured Herat, which was under the rule of Alp Arslan, and led a rebellion. In the meantime, Alp Arslan, who was dealing with the rebellion of the Khatlon emir, suppressed this rebellion and defeated the Khatlon emir, and then went on an expedition against Musa Yabghu. In the battle between the two armies near Herat, Musa Yabghu was defeated. Alp Arslan regained control of Herat and spared the life of Musa Yabghu, who was taken prisoner.[40][41]

Campaign in Chaghaniyan

[edit]

After Alp Arslan suppressed Musa Yabghu's rebellion, he marched against Emir Musa, who rebelled in Chaghaniyan. Emir Musa was defeated and captured in the battle near Chaghaniyan.[42] Later, the Seljuk army captured Chaghaniyan Castle. After suppressing this rebellion, Alp Arslan advanced towards Ray with his army.[40][41]

Battle of Damghan and Alp Arslan's accession to the throne

[edit]

Following the death of his father, Chaghri Beg, in 1059, Alp Arslan succeeded him as the governor of Khorasan and remained in this position for about five years. When his uncle Tughril died in 1063, Suleiman (Alp Arslan's brother), whom Tuğrul had chosen as his successor, took the throne. Refusing to recognize Suleiman's sultanate, both Alp Arslan and Qutalmish entered into a struggle for the throne. The conflict between Alp Arslan and his uncle Qutalmish in this struggle for power was resolved at the Battle of Damghan in 1063. Leading an army of 20,000 men, Alp Arslan attacked the forces of his uncle Qutalmish near Damghan. Despite their numerical superiority, Qutalmish's army of 50,000 men was routed. Alp Arslan defeated Qutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 April 1064 as sultan of the Seljuk Empire, thus becoming the sole monarch of the Seljuk Empire from the river Oxus to the river Tigris.

Campaign in the Northwest (1064)

[edit]

In 1064, he led a campaign in northwestern[43] Along with Nizam al-Mulk and Malik-Shah I,[44] he then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064.[45] Alp Arslan and Malik-Shah I captured the regions between Tbilisi and the Çoruh river, many cities and castles,[46] especially Akhalkalaki, Alaverdi, Byurakan (Anberd), Surmari, Hagios Georgios Castle, and Meryemnişin.[47][48] Alp Arslan went on an expedition to Anatolia and Subizshahr, Akkent, Ağcakale, and surrounding Anatolian castles were captured.[49] Ani, the most fortified castle of the Byzantine Empire, was besieged. The city of Ani was defended by two Byzantine generals, Bagrat and Gregor.[50] After a siege of 25 days, the Seljuks captured Ani, the capital city of Armenia.[51] After the Seljuks captured Ani, Kars surrendered to the Seljuks and was thus taken without a fight.[52] An account of the sack and massacres in Ani is given by the historian Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, who quotes an eyewitness saying:

The army entered the city, massacred its inhabitants, pillaged and burned it, leaving it in ruins and taking prisoner all those who remained alive... The dead bodies were so many that they blocked the streets; one could not go anywhere without stepping over them. And the number of prisoners was not less than 50,000 souls. I was determined to enter the city and see the destruction with my own eyes. I tried to find a street in which I would not have to walk over the corpses, but that was impossible.[53]

Second Campaign in Fars

[edit]

During Sultan Alp Arslan's Campaign of Northwest, following an argument between Fazluye, the governor of Shiraz, and Alp Arslan's brother Qavurt, the governor of Kerman, Sultan Alp Arslan launched an expedition against Qavurt. When Alp Arslan's army attacked, Qavurt's soldiers pleaded for mercy and were taken captive. Qavurt fled. Alp Arslan appointed Fazluye as governor of Fars and went to Isfahan.[54]

Campaign in Ustyurt and Mangyshlak (1065)

[edit]

In 1065, Alp Arslan went on an expedition to the Ustyurt and Mangyshlak regions with a Seljuk army of approximately 30,000 men.[55][56] He defeated the Turkmen, Kipchak, and Jazeks forces.[57] Then he defeated the 30,000 men Kipchak army under the command of Kafshud.[58] Alp Arslan later visited the grave of his grandfather Seljuk in Jand and attributed it to the lands ruled by his son Malik-Shah I. As a result of this expedition of Alp Arslan, the lands from the Caspian Sea to Tashkent came under the rule of the Seljuk Empire.[59]

Campaign in Kerman (1067)

[edit]

Alp Arslan went on an expedition against Qavurt, who rebelled in 1067.[60] Qavurt again asked for forgiveness after the army he sent was defeated by Alp Arslan's vanguard. Alp Arslan forgave him and left him as the prince of Kerman.[61]

Campaign in Georgia (1068)

[edit]

Bagrat IV agreed to pay jizya to the Seljuks in 1064, but the Georgians broke the agreement in 1065.[62] Alp Arslan invaded Georgia again in 1068. He captured Tbilisi, Kartli, Shirak, Vanand, Gugark, Arran, Ganja,[63] and Kars[64] after a short battle and obtained the submission of Bagrat IV. However, the Georgians were liberated from Seljuk rule around 1073–1074 after Alp Arslan died.[62][65] As a result of the campaigns carried out during the reign of Malik-Shah I, Georgia became a part of the Seljuk Empire again.[66][67]

Raid on Caesarea

[edit]

In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions, Alp Arslan was ably assisted by Nizam al-Mulk, and the two are credited with helping to stabilize the empire after the death of Tughril. With peace and security established in his dominions, Alp Arslan convoked an assembly of the states, and in 1066, he declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor.[68] With the hope of capturing Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkoman[69] cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and invaded the city. The Raid on Caesarea occurred in 1067, when the Seljuk Turks, under Alp Arslan and Afshin Bey, attacked Caesarea.[70] Caesarea was sacked and its Cathedral of St. Basil was desecrated.[71] This provoked Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes' first campaign in 1068.[72]

Campaign in Northern Syria and Anatolia

[edit]

In 1070, the emirs of Mecca and Medina came under the rule of the Seljuk Empire. After Mecca and Medina came under Seljuk Empire rule, the Fatimid Vizier Nasr-Dawla asked for help from Alp Arslan against the Fatimids.[73] Alp Arslan moved with his army upon the call for help and entered Anatolia via Azerbaijan. Alp Arslan first captured the castles of Manzikert and Erciş. Later, he went down to the Silvan and Diyarbekir (Amid) regions and made the emirs there his vassals of Seljuk Empire, then he went to Edessa and besieged the city.[74] When the siege was prolonged, he lifted the siege by receiving a tribute of 50,000 dinars.[75] He advanced to Aleppo, which was in the hands of the Mirdasids, and captured the Byzantine castles on his way. When he arrived in Aleppo, he laid siege to the city due to the disobedience of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo. Some time after the siege, Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud came to Alp Arslan, apologized, and became his vassal. Later, as Egypt was preparing to advance, the Byzantine envoy arrived and Alp Arslan turned his attention to Manzikert.[76]

Battle of Manzikert (1071)

[edit]
A painting depicting the Battle of Manzikert (Istanbul Military Museum)[77]

In 1071, Romanos took the field again and advanced east with his army, including a contingent of Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul. Alp Arslan, who had moved his troops south to fight the Fatimids, quickly reversed to meet the Byzantines.[78] When Alp Arslan arrived in Silvan and learned that Romanos Diogenes had captured Manzikert, he set out towards Ahlat.[79] The two armies met at the Rahve Plain near Manzikert.[80] Alp Arslan sent a final ambassador to the Romanos IV Diogenes, offering a peace deal. The Romanos IV Diogenes rejected the peace deal, whereupon Alp Arslan put his army in battle formation and placed some of his cavalry in ambush along the valley. Alp Arslan placed the 4,000-man force he would command in the center line. On the Byzantine side, Emperor Romanos Diogenes also put his army in battle formation. Both armies made their final preparations on August 25.[81] Before the battle on August 26, Alp Arslan gave the following speech to his army:

I want to attack the enemy at this hour when Muslims are praying for us in mosques. If we win, the result we desire will be achieved, if we are defeated, we will go to heaven as martyrs. Today, there is neither a sultan giving orders nor a soldier taking orders; I will fight with you as one of you; those who want to come with me can follow me, those who do not want to can freely return.[82][83]

On August 26, the Battle of Manzikert began with a Seljuk attack.[84] The central army, under the command of Alp Arslan, attacked the numerically superior Byzantine army and, after a while, retreated due to war tactics. The central army, led by the Byzantine emperor Romanus Diogenes, started to follow the Seljuk army, and when they reached the ambush point, the army under the command of Alp Arslan turned towards the Byzantine army and other Seljuk soldiers emerged from the hills where they were hiding and surrounded the Byzantine army.[85] The Byzantine army, which fell into the ambush set by the Seljuks, was defeated and for the first time in history, a Byzantine emperor was taken prisoner by a Turkish and Muslim commander.[86][87] The Byzantines were wholly routed.

Alp Arslan humiliating Emperor Romanos IV after the Battle of Manzikert. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum Illustrium[88]

Emperor Romanos himself was captured in battle and presented to Alp Arslan. It is reported that upon seeing the Roman emperor, the sultan leaped from his throne, commanded Romanos to kiss the ground, and stepped on his neck. He repeatedly berated the emperor, including for spurning his emissaries and offers of peace. Romanos remained unrepentant, asserting that he had merely done what was "possible for a man, and which kings are bound to do, and I have fallen short in nothing. But God has fulfilled his will. And now, do what you wish and abandon recriminations."[89]

Purportedly declaring Romanos "too trivial... to kill", Alp Arslan then led him about the camp to sell the prisoner to one of his men. The Seljuk soldiers initially refused to spend any money on buying the emperor, until one man traded a dog for him.[89] Next, wishing to test Romanos, Alp Arslan asked Romanos what he would do if their situation were reversed and Alp Arslan was imprisoned by the Byzantines. Romanos bluntly answered "The worst!" His honesty impressed Alp Arslan, who then decided to spare Romanos's life and instead ransom him back to his homeland. After agreeing on a ransom, Alp Arslan sent Romanos to Constantinople with a Turkish escort, carrying a banner above the disgraced emperor that read: "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger".[89]

The reason Alp Arslan spared Romanos was likely to avoid a two-front war. The Fatimids were launching devastating raids on the Seljuk domains during this period, and Alp Arslan may have worried that executing the Roman emperor might escalate his conflict with the Byzantines. Romanos himself had told the sultan that "killing me will not be of any use to you".[90]

After hearing of the death of Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, Sultan Alp Arslan pledged: "The Byzantine nation has no God, so this day the oath of peace and friendship taken by both the Persians and Byzantines is nullified; henceforth I shall consume with the sword all those people who venerate the cross, and all the lands of the Christians shall be enslaved."[91]

Alp Arslan and his successor Malik Shah urged Turkish tribes to invade and settle Anatolia, where they would not only cease to be a problem for the Seljuk Sultanate, but also extend its territory further. Alp Arslan commanded the Turks as follows:

Henceforth all of you be like lion cubs and eagle young, racing through the countryside day and night, slaying the Christians and not sparing any mercy on the Roman nation.[92][93]

Alp Arslan's victories changed the balance in western Asia completely in favor of the Seljuq Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly four more centuries, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkic ascendancy in Anatolia.[6] The victory at Manzikert became so popular among the Turks that later every noble family in Anatolia claimed to have had an ancestor who had fought on that day.[94]

Campaign in Turkestan (1072)

[edit]

Alp Arslan launched an expedition to Turkestan in 1072 with an army of 200,000. The reason for this expedition was that the Seljuk Dynasty's son-in-law, Shams al-Mulk, killed his wife, Alp Arslan's daughter (though some sources say she was his sister).[95] Alp Arslan had ships built to cross the Amu Darya River with his army. Alp Arslan and his army crossed the Amu Darya River with the help of ships in 24 days.[96] Later, Alp Arslan entered the Kara-Khanid lands with his army. Alp Arslan and his army came to the front of Barzem Castle without encountering any resistance or attacks and surrounded the castle. After a while, the castle, unable to withstand the siege, surrendered. The castle commander Yusuf al-Kharezmi[97] came to Alp Arslan, stabbed him, and seriously wounded him. Alp Arslan held out for four days, but then died.[98]

State organization

[edit]

Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization that characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military iqtas, governed by Seljuq princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Anatolian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians, Turks, and other established cultures within the Seljuq realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiers. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars.

Suleiman ibn Qutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces and assigned to complete the invasion of Anatolia. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir's account of the battle between Alp Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman.

Physical appearance and personality

[edit]

Contemporary descriptions portray Alp Arslan as "very awe-inspiring, dominating," a "great-formed one, elegant of stature. He had long, thin whiskers, which he used to knot up when shooting arrows. And they say his arrow never went astray.... From the top button of his hat to the end of his moustaches it was two yards".[99]

Muslim sources show Alp Arslan as fanatically pious but just. Alp Arslan was so dedicated to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence that he always kept a qadi by his side, including in battles.[100] Demonstrating his strong adherence to Sunni Islam, Alp Arslan's court was routinely filled with men of religion. His retinue included notable Hanafi imams such as Mushattab b. Muhammad al-Farghani and 'Abd al-Malik al-Bukhari al-Hanafi, the latter of whom served as his personal imam and accompanied him into battle.[101] His vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, described the young sultan in his Book of Government:[102]

He was exceedingly imperious and awe-inspiring and, because he was so earnest and fanatical in his beliefs and disapproved of the Shafi'i rite, I lived in constant fear of him.

Some authors have doubted whether the Turks, who had adopted Islam recently, completely understood such religious distinctions. Alex Mallett writes, "Whatever the case, the fact that almost all writers have good things to say about him suggests that he treated everyone more or less equally, in religious terms."[103]

Death

[edit]

After Manzikert, the dominion of Alp Arslan extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march for the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army, he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river safely, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the rebel, Yusuf al-Kharezmi or Yusuf al-Harani. Perhaps over-eager to press on against his Qarakhanid enemy, Alp Arslan gained the governor's submission by promising the rebel 'perpetual ownership of his lands'. When he was produced a captive in the royal tent, the sultan, instead of praising his valor, severely reproached his obstinate folly: and the insolent replies of the rebel provoked a sentence, that he should be fastened to four stakes, and left to expire in that painful situation. At this command, the desperate Yusuf al-Kharezmi, drawing a dagger, rushed headlong towards the throne. The guards raised their battle-axes; their zeal was checked by Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of the age. He drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received in his breast the dagger of Yusuf al-Kharezmi, who was instantly cut in pieces.

The wound was mortal, and the Turkish sultan bequeathed a dying admonition to the pride of kings. "In my youth," said Alp Arslan, "I was advised by a sage to humble before God; to distrust my own strength; and never to despise the most contemptible foe. I have neglected these lessons; and my neglect has been deservedly punished. Yesterday, as from an eminence I beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit, of my armies, the earth seemed to tremble under my feet; and I said in my heart, Surely thou art the king of the world, the greatest and most invincible of warriors. These armies are no longer mine; and, in the confidence of my personal strength, I now fall by the hand of an assassin." Four days later, on 24 November 1072, Alp Arslan died and was buried at Merv, having designated his 18-year-old son Malik Shah as his successor.[97]

Family

[edit]

One of his wives was Safariyya Khatun.[104] She had a daughter,[105] Sifri Khatun,[106] who in 1071–72, married Abbasid Caliph Al-Muqtadi.[105][107] Safariyya died in Isfahan in 1073–74.[107] Another of his wives was Akka Khatun. She had been formerly the wife of Sultan Tughril. Alp Arslan married her after Tughril's death in 1063.[107] Another of his wives was Shah Khatun. She was the daughter of Qadir Khan Yusuf, and had been formerly married to Ghaznavid Mas'ud I.[105][107][108]

Another wife was Ummu Hifchaq, also known as Ummu Qipchaq.[109] Another of his wives was the daughter of King of Tashir Kiurike I, who was married to the sister of the Georgian king Bagrat IV. Alp Arslan divorced her, and married her to Nizam al-Mulk.[110] His sons were Malik-Shah I, Tutush I, Arslan Shah, Tekish,[111] Toghan-Shah,[112] Ayaz, and Buibars.[105] One of his daughters married the son of Kurd Surkhab, son of Bard, in 1068.[107]

Another daughter, Zulaikha Khatun, was married to Muslim ibn Quraysh in 1086–87.[107] Another daughter, Aisha Khatun, married Shams al-Mulk Nasr, son of Ibrahim Khan Tamghach.[107] Another daughter was married to Mas'ud III of Ghazni and was his first wife.[113][114] Another daughter was Sara Khatun.[105] The son of Alp Arslan's sister, Dev Ali Beg (Devle Beg), was a royal military general who played a key role in the conquest of Kayseri and gave his name to Develi district of Kayseri. His tribal family later became known as "Develioğlu" (meaning "son of Develi").[115]

Legacy

[edit]

Alp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the Crusades.

From 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan.

The 2nd Training Motorized Rifle Division of the Turkmen Ground Forces is named in his honor.

[edit]

In 2020, Malazgirt 1071, a TRT co-production film, saw Turkish actor Cengiz Coşkun in the lead role of Sultan Alp Arslan.[116]

In the 2021 Turkish historical fiction TV series Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu, Alp Arslan was portrayed by Turkish actor Barış Arduç.[117][118]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 "THE SELJUKS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS: IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA, C.1040-1250 Coin no. 3 of 14". Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. This coin was struck at the mint of al-Ahwaz, the capital town of Khuzistan, which, together with al-Basra, was the main trading city at the head of the Persian Gulf. On it, Alp Arslan clearly states his power and prestige as "the Exalted Sultan, King of Kings, King of Islam." In the inscription on his coins his name appears as Alb because Arabic lacks the letter "p", but to Persian and Turkish speakers his name is pronounced "Alp".
  2. ↑ "Alparslan". TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 4 May 2025.
  3. ↑ "ALPARSLAN". TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 14 August 2025.
  4. 1 2 Kafesoğlu 1989, p. 526.
  5. ↑ Cahen 1986, p. 420.
  6. 1 2 3 Cahen, Claude (12 February 2024). "Alp-Arslan". Encyclopedia Britannica. "But the Battle of Manzikert opened Asia Minor to Turkmen conquest"
  7. ↑ K. A. Luther. "ALP ARSLAN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. I Fascicle 8. pp. 895–898.
  8. ↑ Bosworth, C. E. "AḤMAD B. NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. I, Fasc. 6. pp. 642–643.
  9. ↑ Peacock, A.C.S., Great Seljuk Empire, Edinburgh University Press, 2015, pgs. 179, 183
  10. ↑ Yıldız, Osman Fikret (1 January 2019). Büyük Selçuklular Ve Nizamül-Mülk, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Isparta 2019,(Great Seljuks and Nizamal-Mulk). p. 93 Fig.4. Miniature from Reşîdüddîn, Câmiu't-Tevârîh, TSMK, Hazine, nr. 1654, vr. 202
  11. ↑ Magill, Frank Northen (1998). Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2. Routledge. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-57958-041-4.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Sevim, Ali; Merçil, Erdoğan (1995). Selçuklu Devletleri Tarihi. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu. p. 29. ISBN 975-16-0690-X.
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  26. 1 2 3 Sevim, Ali; Merçil, Erdoğan (1995). Selçuklu Devletleri Tarihi. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu. pp. 43–44. ISBN 975-16-0690-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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  105. 1 2 3 4 5 Richards, D.S. (2014). The Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh of Ibn al-Athir. Routledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey. Taylor & Francis. pp. 155, 163 n. 1, 174, 178. ISBN 978-1-317-83255-3.
  106. ↑ El-Hibri, T. (2021). The Abbasid Caliphate: A History. Cambridge University Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-1-107-18324-7.
  107. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lambton, A.K.S. (1988). Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia. Bibliotheca Persica. Bibliotheca Persica. pp. 259, 261, 262–63, 267, 269 n. 74. ISBN 978-0-88706-133-2.
  108. ↑ Massignon, L.; Mason, H. (2019). The Passion of Al-Hallaj, Mystic, and Martyr of Islam, Volume 2: The Survival of Al-Hallaj. Online access with JISC subscription agreement: ACLS Humanities E-Books. Princeton University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-691-65721-9.
  109. ↑ İSTEK, Gülşen (1 January 2020). "Büyük Selçuklu Devleti ile Abbasi Hilafeti Arasında Gerçekleşen Siyasi Evlilikler". Social Mentality and Researcher Thinkers Journal. 6 (32). ASOS Yayinevi: 944–961. doi:10.31576/smryj.542. ISSN 2630-631X.
  110. ↑ Minorsky, V. (1977) [1953]. Studies in Caucasian History: I. New Light on the Shaddadids of Ganja II. The Shaddadids of Ani III. Prehistory of Saladin. Cambridge Oriental Series. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-521-05735-6.
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  112. ↑ Fisher, W.B.; Boyle, J.A. (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge histories online. Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-521-06936-6.
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  114. ↑ Richards, D.S. (2010). The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil fi'l-Ta'rikh. Part 3. Crusade Texts in Translation. Ashgate. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-7546-6952-4.
  115. ↑ KOZAN, Ali. "Sheikhs and dervishes during the Turkey Seljuks". Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi: 144, 145.
  116. ↑ "TRT ortak yapımı "Malazgirt 1071" 13 Mart'ta vizyona girecek". TRT Haber (in Turkish). 9 March 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
  117. ↑ "'Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu' dizisi TRT 1 ekranlarında izleyiciyle buluştu". 23 July 2025.
  118. ↑ "Barış Arduç kimdir, nereli? Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu dizisinin Alparslan'ı Barış Arduç kaç yaşında, eşi kim?". 23 July 2025.

Sources

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