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// Workers AI · dad joke modeWhat did Nivkh say to its language friend? "You're a native speaker, I'm riveted.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Amuric languages)
Nivkh
Gilyak, Amuric
нивх диф, нивх туғс
Pronunciation[mer ɲivx dif/tuɣs] (Amur dialect);
[ɲiɣvŋ duf] (S.E. Sakhalin dialect)
Native toRussian Far East, specifically Amur Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, and Sakhalin Oblast
RegionIsland of Sakhalin, along the lower Amur River and around the Amur Liman. Formerly, also in the Shantar Islands and parts of Amur Oblast
Ethnicity4,652 Nivkh
Native speakers
1,300 (2020 census)[1]
Early form
Dialects
  • Nivkh proper (Amur)
  • East Sakhalin
  • North Sakhalin
  • South Sakhalin[2]
  • Mishihase?[3] †
Cyrillic, Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3niv
Glottolognivk1234
ELPSakhalin Nivkh
Settlements with Nivkh populations in the Russian Census of 2002
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Nivkh (/ˈniːfk/ NEEFK; occasionally also Nivkhic; self-designation: Нивхгу диф, Nivhgu dif, /ɲivxɡu dif/), Gilyak (/ˈɡɪljæk/ GIL-yak),[4] or Amuric, is a small language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, of two or three mutually unintelligible languages[5][6] spoken by the Nivkh people in Outer Manchuria, in the basin of the Amgun (a tributary of the Amur), along the lower reaches of the Amur itself, and on the northern half of Sakhalin. "Gilyak" is the Russian rendering of terms derived from the Tungusic "Gileke" and Manchu-Chinese "Gilemi" (Gilimi, Gilyami) for culturally similar peoples of the Amur River region, and was applied principally to the Nivkh in Western literature.[7]

The population of ethnic Nivkhs has been reasonably stable over the past century, with 4,549 Nivkhs counted in 1897 and 4,673 in 1989. However, the number of native speakers of the Nivkh language among these dropped from 100% to 23.3% in the same period, so by the 1989 census there were only 1,079 first-language speakers left.[8] That may have been an overcount, however, as the 2010 census recorded only 198 native speakers, less than 4% of the ethnic population.[9]

Proto-Nivkh(ic), the proto-language ancestral to the modern-day languages, has been reconstructed by Fortescue (2016).[6]

Languages

[edit]

Nivkh is a dialect continuum. There is a high degree of variability of usage among Nivkhs depending on village, clan, and even the individual speaker. Varieties are traditionally grouped into four geographic clusters. These are the lower-Amur variety, the North Sakhalin variety (spoken on the coasts around the Amur Liman, including the mainland and west Sakhalin), the East Sakhalin variety (including populations around the Tym River), and the South Sakhalin variety (spoken around the Poronay River). The lexical and phonological differences across these varieties is great enough that specialists describe them as falling into two or three languages, though for purposes of language revival among a small and already divided population, Nivkh is generally presented as a single language, due to fears of the consequences of further division.

Gruzdeva (1998) notes that speakers of East Sakhalin and the lower Amur cannot understand each other, and divides the varieties into two languages, Nivkh proper (including the lower Amur, Northern Sakhalin / Straits and Western Sakhalin varieties) and Nighvng (the East and South Sakhalin varieties). Fortescue (2016)[6] notes that the Amur, East Sakhalin and South Sakhalin varieties have low intelligibility with each other, and considers each of them to constitute a separate language.

Classification

[edit]

Nivkh is not known to be related to any other language, making it a language isolate. For convenience, it may be included in the geographical group of Paleosiberian languages. Many words in the Nivkh languages bear a certain resemblance to words of similar meaning in other Paleosiberian languages, Ainu, Korean, or Tungusic languages, but no regular sound correspondences have been discovered to systematically account for the vocabularies of these various families, so any lexical similarities are considered to be due to chance or to borrowing.

Michael Fortescue suggested in 1998 that Nivkh might be related to the Mosan languages of North America.[10] Later, in 2011, he argued that Nivkh, which he referred to as an "isolated Amuric language", was related to the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages, forming a Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric language family.[11] However, Glottolog considers the evidence to be "insufficient".[12]

In 2015, Sergei Nikolaev argued in two papers for a systematic relationship between Nivkh and the Algic languages of North America, and a more distant relationship between these two together and the Wakashan languages of coastal British Columbia.[13][14]

The Nivkh languages are included in the widely rejected Eurasiatic languages hypothesis by Joseph Greenberg.[15]

An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013)[16] found lexical similarities among Nivkh, Mongolic, and Tungusic, likely due to lexical borrowings.

Hudson & Robbeets (2020) conjectured that a language that resembles Nivkh was once distributed in Korea and became the substratum of Koreanic languages.[17] Kim Bang-han proposed that placename glosses in the Samguk sagi reflect the original language of the Korean peninsula and a component in the formation of both Korean and Japanese. He proposed that this language was related to Nivkh.[18] Juha Janhunen suggests the possibility that similar consonant stop systems in Koreanic and Nivkh may be due to ancient contact.[19]

History

[edit]

The Nivkh people have lived, by many accounts for thousands of years, on the island of Sakhalin and the Amur River. They maintained trade with the neighboring Ainu, Japanese, and Chinese, until Russian contact, which began in the 17th century.[20] The 19th century shows the first recorded decline of Nivkh numbers, with official estimates dropping from 1856 to 1889. This coincided with smallpox epidemics and the expansion of Sakhalin's prisoner population, as Russia began sending groups of its convicts to Sakhalin in 1873. At this time, reportedly few Nivkh spoke Russian.[21]

The official Russian census reported similar numbers of ethnic Nivkhs in 1897 (4,500) and in 2002 (5,200). However, the number of native speakers among the ethnic Nivkhs dropped from 100% to 23.3% in the same period. All recorded native Nivkh speakers were bilingual in Russian, most of them were born in 1920-1940s, when a significant decline in the number of native Nivkh speakers occurred, due to Joseph Stalin's policy of collectivization imposed on indigenous economies,[21] and in many cases, driving Nivkh individuals to hired labor, marking a departure from traditional means of subsistence.[20][22] Many Nivkh were forcibly displaced from their more widely spread settlements to Nogliki, a small city, in the process of centralization. The traditional Nivkh way of life was gradually and sometimes forcibly converted to a Soviet way of life, as changes in subsistence, diet, dwellings, and education have resulted. As of the 2010s, the Nivkh language was taught in grades 1–3 in several schools in both Sakhalin and Khabarovsk Krai. A monthly newspaper "Nivkh dif" (Nivkh language) is published in Sakhalin. Nivkh language books are also regularly published in Russia.

Phonology

[edit]

Consonants

[edit]
Nivkh consonants[23]
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Stop tenuis p t t͡ʃ k q
aspirated pʰ tʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ qʰ
voiced b d d͡ʒ ɡ ɢ
Fricative voiceless f s x χ h
voiced v z ɣ ʁ
Approximant w l j
Trill voiceless r̥
voiced r

The labial fricatives are weakly articulated, and have been described as both bilabial [ɸ, β] and labiodental [f, v]. The palatal stops may have some degree of affrication, as [tʃʰ, tʃ].[24] After nasals or /l/, the unaspirated stops become voiced [b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ, ɢ]. Unlike consonant alternation, this can occur within a morpheme. The Amur dialect deletes some word-final nasals, which leads to word-initial voiced stops, allophonic in other dialects, being phonemic in the Amur dialect.[citation needed] The voiceless trill is realized as [r̥ʃ] in East Sakhalin dialect (and presumably also in the Amur dialect, where it is written ⟨рш⟩) and as an untrilled [r̥ʃ] in the North Sakhalin dialect.[23]

Consonants are palatalized in some contexts, most commonly in younger speakers, where all consonants are palatalized before [i] and [e]. Additionally, there is another context in which consonants are always palatalised, viz. before [e] when it precedes a uvular consonant [q, χ, ʁ], e.g. [pʰeq] > [pʰʲe̞q] ‘chicken’.[25]

Nivkh features a process of consonant alternation like in Celtic languages, in which morpheme-initial stops alternate with fricatives and trills:[24]

Consonant alternations in Nivkh
Aspirated ↔ voiceless Unaspirated ↔ voiced
Stop pʰ tʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ qʰ p t t͡ʃ k q
Continuant f r̥ s x χ v r z ɣ ʁ

This occurs when a morpheme is preceded by another morpheme within the same phrase (e.g. a prefix or an adjunct), unless the preceding morpheme ends itself in a fricative or trill, or in a nasal or /l/.

  • ⟨пыңх⟩ /pəŋx/ 'soup'
  • ⟨пынрай выңх⟩ /pənraj‿vəŋx/ 'duck soup'
  • ⟨амсп выңх⟩ /amsp‿vəŋx/ 'kind of seal soup'
  • but: ⟨тьхыф пыңх⟩ /cxəf‿pəŋx/ 'bear soup'

Only the morpheme-initial position is affected: other clusters ending in a stop are possible within a morpheme (e.g. /utku/ "man").

In some transitive verbs, the process has been noted to apparently run in reverse (fricatives/trills fortiting to stops, with the same distribution). This has been taken a distinct process, but has also been explained to be fundamentally the same, with the citation form of these verbs containing an underlying stop, lenited due to the presence of a former i- prefix (which still survives in the citation form of other verbs, where it causes regular consonant alternation). Initial fricatives in nouns never change.[24]

Vowels

[edit]

There are six vowels in Nivkh:

Nivkh vowels
Front Central Back
Close i ɨ u
Mid e o
Open a

Long vowels are not a phonemic feature of Nivkh, but they can be articulated in the case of prosody or compensatory lengthening when a fricative consonant is omitted after the vowel.[26]

Stress

[edit]

Stress tends to fall on the first syllable, although this could highly fluctuate, with dialectal variation. Minimal pairs distinguished by stress are ostensibly rare.[27]

Orthography

[edit]

The Nivkh language uses a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet.

Contemporary Nivkh Alphabet[23]
А аБ бВ вГ гӶ ӷҒ ғӺ ӻ
/a//b//v//ɡ//ɢ//ɣ//ʁ/
Д дЕ еЁ ёЗ зИ иЙ йК к
/d/, /d͜ʒ//(j)e//(j)o//z//i//j//k/
Кʼ кʼҚ қ (Ӄ ӄ)Қʼ қʼ (Ӄʼ ӄʼ)Л лМ мН нҢ ң (Ӈ ӈ)
/kʰ//q//qʰ//l//m//n/, /ɲ//ŋ/
О оП пПʼ пʼР рР̆ р̆ (Р̌ р̌)С сТ т
/o//p//pʰ//r//r̥/ ~ /ʃ//s//t/, /t͜ʃ/
Тʼ тʼУ уФ фХ хҲ ҳ (Ӽ ӽ)Ӿ ӿЧʼ чʼ
/tʰ//u/, /w//f//x//χ//h//t͜ʃʰ/
Ъ ъьЫ ыЭ эЮ юЯ я
(d, n, t)(d͜ʒ, ɲ, t͜ʃ)/ə//e//(j)u//(j)a/

The letters Ё and Щ are only used in Russian loanwords.[28] Various allographs of the letters with descenders are found, and er may take either a breve or a caron. The allographs listed first in the table above are the choice of Нивх диф, the only Nivkh newspaper.

The letters Д, Н and Т stands for two sounds each. When they are followed by a iotized vowel letter, or at the end of a syllable followed by ь, they stand for the affricate or palatal consonants /d͜ʒ, ɲ, t͜ʃ/; otherwise they stand for the alveolar consonants /d, n, t/. At the beginning of a syllable, the letters Е, Ё, Ю, Я stands for /je, jo, ju, ja/.

The letter Ӷ is not used in Amur dialect, while /r̥/ is spelled РШ.

Grammar

[edit]

Nivkh grammar is agglutinating[29] with an SOV word order.[30] Words consist of easily definable roots and productive morphemes, most of which are suffixes. There are no dedicated adjectives in Nivkh but the language has attributive verbs which precede their referent.[31]

As Russian has become the dominant language in all spheres of life, Nivkh grammar has changed in the last century. For example, Nivkh has recently begun to mark plurals on counting nouns and pairs, a change that originated from the grammar rules of Russian. However, it has been postulated that due to the vastly disparate grammatical structures of the two languages, grammatical interference has not been extensive. Simplification has occurred by borrowing Russian structure though. Due to the disuse of the language and the changing culture, many of the complex morphological aspects of Nivkh have been simplified or become obsolete.[32]

As described earlier, Nivkh consonants undergo a form of lenition wherein the initial consonant of a morpheme is changed by the final segment of the preceding morpheme,[33] and these possible alterations are reflected in the charts and examples below.

The grammatical summary that follows is based mostly upon the Amur dialect, after Gruzdeva (1998).

Nouns

[edit]

Nouns are formed by affixation of a noun root; of these affixes, only possession is expressed by prefixing, with various case and number distinctions expressed by suffixation.[34] Overall, Nivkh nouns are constructed according to the following paradigm:

[poss] + STEM + [num/com] + [case]

Possession

Possession markers cliticize as prefixes on the noun.[35] The prefixes -нь, -ч, -п’ (-n’, -č, -p’) are person-specific and derived from personal pronouns.[36]

ньраф
n’-raf
1SG.POSS-house
“my house”

Number

Nivkh has two grammatical numbers, singular and plural. There are echoes of dual number in the comitative suffixes as well as personal pronouns and the imperative. Singular is unmarked, whereas plural is expressed by the -к/ғ/г/ху (-k/ɣ/g/xu) suffix. Some nouns are inherently collective, and there are a few nouns with plurals formed by stem reduplication.[37]

к’у

k’u-Ø

→

→

к’уғун

k’u-ɣun

к’у → к’уғун

k’u-Ø → k’u-ɣun

arrow  →   arrows

Plural marking on nouns is broadly optional.[38]

The comitative is expressed identically to number and has both plural and dual forms, governed respectively by the suffixes -к/ғ/г/хo(н) (-k/ɣ/g/xo(n)) and -к/ғ/г/хe (-k/ɣ/g/xe).[39]

Ньи ңақрух к’екхо ӿыйкхо зифку ньршудь.
N’i ņaķr-Ø-ux k’eķ-xo hyjk-xo zif-ku n’řy-d’.
I snow-SG-LOC/ABL fox-COM:PL hare-COM:PL track-PL see-FIN
“I saw foxes’ and hares’ tracks in the snow.”

Case

Nivkh has eight grammatical cases, all of which are expressed via suffixation.[40]

Case Suffix Transliteration
NOM -Ø (unmarked)
DAT/ACC -(а)ҳ -(a)χ
COMP -ык -yk
LOC -уин(е) -uin(e)
LOC/ABL -(у)ҳе / -(у)х -uχe / -(u)x
DAT/ADD -т/р/д/оҳ -t/r/d/oχ
LIM -т/р/д/оҳо / -ть/ршыкы -t/d/d/oχo / -t’/r̥yky
INST -к/ҳ/г/хир -k/χ/g/xir

Nominative is the case of a subject, direct object, indirect object, an adverbial modifier of time or an attribute.[41]

Тьолф ньытк чо ңаңғдь.
T’olf-Ø n’ytk-Ø čo-Ø ņaņɣ-d’.
summer-NOM my-father-NOM fish-NOM look-for-FIN
“In summer my father fishes.”

Dative/Accusative is used to express the animate causee in a causative statement, as well as in certain indirect or narrative constructions.[42]

Ньнанх ньаҳ пхироҳ вигудь.
N’-nanx-Ø n’-aχ pxi-roχvi-gu-d’.
my-elder.sister-NOM I-DAT/ACC forest-DAT/ADD go-CAUS-FIN
“My elder sister let me go to the forest.”

The Comparative is a true grammatical case in Nivkh, drawing a direct comparison between two entities.[43]

Тлани канӊык еғдь.
Tlaņi-Ø kanņ-yk eɣ-d’.
reindeer-NOM dog-COMP be.fast-FIN
“A reindeer is faster than a dog.”

Present only in the Amur dialect, Locative case governs place or time of action, and is also used to denote possession.[44]

Ньын ӿы дывуин к’одьра.
N’yņ-Ø hy dyv-uin k’o-d’-ra.
we-NOM this house-LOC sleep-FIN-PTL:PRED
“We slept in this house.”

The Locative/Ablative case expresses the beginning of a sequence or temporal event, and can also indicate an entity from which something is taken away.[45]

Умгу ньох п’удь.
Umgu-Ø n’o-x p’u-d’.
woman-NOM barn-LOC/ABL come.out-FIN
“A woman came out from the barn.”

The Dative/Additive case marks an entity or place to which an action is directed or the ending point of a sequence.[46]

Ньи вынь дьырдоҳ мырдь.
N’i-Ø vyn’-Ø d’yr-doχ myr-d’.
I-NOM copper-NOM brim-DAT/ADD rise-FIN
“I rose to the brim of the copper.”

Limitative case is similar to the Dative/Accusative but has a narrower definition of terminal action.[47]

Чытк ӿаимңафтоғо ӿунындра.
Č-ytk-Ø haimņaf-toɣo hunv-nd-ra.
you-father-NOM old.age-LIM live-FIN-PTL:PRED
“Your father lived up to old age.”

Finally, the Instrumental case governs the instrument used in an action as well as the material from which something is constructed or a manner of action.[48]

Ньытык қаҳкир қ’отр к’удь.
N’-ytyk-Ø ķaχ-kir ķ’otr-Ø k’u-d’.
I-father-NOM spear-INS bear-NOM kill-FIN
“My father killed the bear with a spear.”

Verbs

[edit]

Verbs are formed via affixation of a verb stem according to the following paradigm:[49]

[voice] + [STEM] + [trans] + [neg] + [tense/aspect] + [caus] + [mod] + [evid] + [mood] + [num]

Multiple aspect and modality markers can appear simultaneously.

There is virtually no overt pronominal marking of subjects or objects within the broader verb structure of Nivkh; word order is the sole determiner of constituents, and subjects are usually dropped as well.[50]

Voice

The Active versus Passive paradigm familiar to English speakers does not exist in Nivkh. Both reflexive and reciprocal constructions are realized by prefixing, which is relatively rare in the language.[51]

Reflexives are most often constructed using the cliticizing prefix п’- (p’-).[52]

п’лыв
p’-lyv
RFL-hide
“to hide oneself”

Reciprocal forms are often idiomatic, but there are a few dozen archaic verbs that carry the inherent reciprocal prefixes в-, у- or о- (v-, u-, o-). In non-reciprocal free variants, these prefixes are replaced by j/и- (j/i-).[53]

јағағ

j-aɣaɣ-

→

→

вағағ

v-aɣaɣ-

јағағ → вағағ

j-aɣaɣ- → v-aɣaɣ-

“disturb” → “disturb each other”

Transitivity

Transitivity is expressed phonetically; intransitive verbs begin with a plosive and transitives with a fricative. However, a small class of verbs carries the transivitizing suffix -у- (-u-).[54]

волу
vol-u
fall-TRANS
“to throw something down”

Negation

Verb forms are negated using the finite suffix -р/тла- (-r/tla-).[55] Beyond verb suffixing, there are many lexical and grammatical methods of expressing negation in Nivkh.[56]

Tense

There are only two verb tenses in Nivkh, non-future and future. Non-future is unmarked whereas future tense takes the -ны- (-ny-) suffix. The non-future form may combine with adverbials, as well as context, to indicate a timeframe.[57]

Иф раныдь.
If ra-ny-d’.
he drink-FUT-FIN
“He will drink.”

Aspect

There are a number of aspectual distinctions in Nivkh, all of which are expressed via suffixation. In the Amur dialect, there are two very common aspect suffixes with multiple semantic expressions.

The suffix -иву- (-ivu-) marks the imperfective aspect when used with a verb that refers to a state or event, which then becomes a process. Conversely, when included with a verb that refers to a process, it marks the egressive, indicating the beginning of that process.[58]

Вуквукуивудь.
Vukvuku-ivu-d’.
be.dark-IMPRF-FIN
“It is getting dark.”

The suffix -к/ғыт- (-k/ɣyt-) is perfective when used with a verb referencing a state or limited process, converting it to an event. With a verb referencing a specific event, the suffix indicates the intensive aspect, emphasizing the extent or intensity of the event. With a verb referring to a multiplicative process, it indicates the semelfactive, making it a singular event.[59]

Ки вағтькытдь.
Ki vaɣt’-kyt-d’.
footwear wear.out-INT-FIN
“The footwear is entirely worn out.”

Causative

Verbs are made causative by the inclusion of the suffix -к/гу (-k/gu).[60]

Иф ньаҳ магазиндоҳ вигудь.
If n’-aχ magazine-doχ vi-gu-d’.
he I-DAT/ACC shop-DAT/ADD go-CAUS-FIN
“He made me go to the shop.”

Mood

Indicative and Imperative are the only two established grammatical moods in Nivkh.[61]

Declarative statements in the indicative mood often carry the finite suffix -дь/т’ (-d’/t’). Sentences containing multiple coordinating verbal forms are otherwise marked with -ра/та (-ra/ta). A plural subject can be marked, optionally, with -к/ғ/г/ху (-k/ɣ/g/xu).[62]

Imperative mood structures are declinable according to the person and number of the subject, as in the chart below.[63]

Imperative Markers
SingularDualPlural
1st Person -ныкта
-nykta		-ныте
-nyte		-да
-da
2nd Person -я
-ja		-в/б/пе
-v/b/pe
3rd Person -ӻазо
-ĝazo		-ӻазо-
-ĝazo

In modern Nivkh, the first person dual form is no longer used. When an imperative is addressed to an older or unfamiliar person, the suffix -наве (-nave) is used instead of the standard ending.[64]

Copula

The verb му (mu, to be/become) is used as a copula in declarative sentences. It is obligatory in future tense but optional elsewhere.[65]

Ньи рыуньивх мудь.
N’i ryun’ivx mu-d’.
I teacher be-FIN
“I am a teacher.”

Non-finite verb forms

Non-finite verbal forms can be divided into participles and converbs.

The participle is similar to a finite verb except that it generally lacks the finite suffix and carries modality suffixes, of which there are many in the language. Attributives that function as verbs fall into this category.[66]

раюғыт хаузул
raju-ɣyt xauzul
write-PRF paper
“paper covered with writing”

Converbs are characterized by the presence of aspect and modality suffixes, but are generally not marked for number or tense. There are dozens of modal suffixes in Nivkh expressing distinctions such as temporality, conditionality, concession, causation and more.[67]

қ’охрыры
ķ’o-xryry
sleep-CONV:CAUSL
“because I was sleeping”

Notably, and as distinct from virtually every other verb form in the language, converbs take overt subject marking in one of three possible suffix forms, each having a different aspectual connotation.[68]

Person Agreement Prefix
Set A Set B Set C
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st Person -т
-t		 -т
-t		 -тот
-tot		 -тот
-tot		 -та
-ta		 -та
-ta
2nd Person -р
-r		 -т
-t		 -рор
-ror		 -тот
-tot		 -ра
-ra		 -та
-ta
3rd Person -р
-r		 -т
-t		 -рор
-ror		 -тот
-tot		 -ра
-ra		 -та
-ta

The Set A markers imply a completed action or one simultaneous with the finite predicate, Set B denotes a completed action within a sequence and Set C is used primarily to link a number of verb phrases into a temporal sequence.[69] Thus:

иф п’рыр ит’
if p’ry-r it-t’
he come-CONV:NAR-3SG say-FIN
“having come, he said”

Converbs usually function similarly to adverbs or govern entire subordinate predicates; this essentially takes on the entire role of conjunctions, which do not truly exist in Nivkh.[70]

In addition to these, Nivkh boasts a rich variety of adverbial forms[71] that express an extremely complex system of spatial reference.[72]

Pronouns

[edit]

All Nivkh pronouns take regular case endings. Dual forms exist only in the first person, and the first person plural is inherently exclusive.[73]

Personal Pronouns
SingularDualPlural
1st Person ньи
n’i		меги / меге
megi / mege		ньыӊ
n’yņ
2nd Person чи
či		чың
čyņ
3rd Person иф
if		имӊ
imņ

Instead of dedicated possessive pronouns, which do not exist in any variety of Nivkh, possession is expressed as a dual or plural personal pronoun in the nominative,[74] as in:

ньың доқо
n’yņ-Ø doķo-Ø
we-PL-NOM kitchen.garden-NOM
“our kitchen garden”

Reflexivity in pronouns is indicated by the particle п’и (p’i), which can cliticize onto a number of morphological categories.[75]

Ымык п’ерҳ п’оғлабодь.
Ymyk p’e-rχ p’-oɣlabo-d’.
mother herself-DAT/ADD REFL-child take-FIN
“Mother took her child to herself.”

Language contact with the Ainu people

[edit]

The Ainu appear to have experienced intensive contact with the Nivkhs during the course of their history. It is not known to what extent this has affected Nivkh. Linguists generally believe the vocabulary shared between the Ainu language and Nivkh (historically spoken in the northern half of Sakhalin and the Asian mainland facing it) is due to borrowing.[76]

Sample text

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English[77] Cyrillic Nivkh[77] IPA phonetic transcription[77]
Hello, dear friends!

I am very pleased to meet you. The aspirated sound [chʰ] is pronounced by drawing the tongue in and opening the teeth slightly on a sharp exhale.

 Урла муғв к‘инӈула ӈафӄғу!

Ч‘ыӈ ордь ни маӈгут эзмудьра. Ӿилх ыӈг ми ниняӄ тывыгута, ари ӿава ӈығску т‘аӻрух п‘ова кутлироӽ тьыу [ч‘] т‘ат итт п‘угута.

 Urla muɣf kʰinŋula ŋafq-ɣu!

Cʰəŋ or-ɟ ɲi maŋgut e-zmu-ɟ=ra. Hilx əŋg mi ɲiɲaq təvə-gu-ta ari hava ŋəɣs-ku tʰaʁr-ux pʰova kutli-roχ cəu [cʰ] tʰat it-t pʰu-gu-ta.

See also

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References

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  1. ↑ "Росстат — Всероссийская перепись населения 2020". rosstat.gov.ru. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  2. ↑ Gruzdeva (1998), p. 7.
  3. ↑ オホーツク文化人とモヨロ貝塚 網走. Kamuimintara (in Japanese). Rinyu Kanko. August 1987. Retrieved January 31, 2011.
  4. ↑ Bauer, Laurie (2007). The Linguistics Student's Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  5. ↑ Gruzdeva (1998)
  6. 1 2 3 Fortescue, Michael D. (2016). Comparative Nivkh Dictionary. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN 978-3-86288-687-6.
  7. ↑ Zgusta, Richard (2015). The Peoples of Northeast Asia Through Time: Precolonial Ethnic and Cultural Processes Along the Coast Between Hokkaido and the Bering Strait. Leiden: Brill. p. 71. ISBN 978-90-04-30043-9.
  8. ↑ Arefiev (2014), p. 50
  9. ↑ Arefiev (2014), p. 97
  10. ↑ Fortescue, Michael D. (1998). Language Relations Across The Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-70330-3.
  11. ↑ Fortescue, Michael (2011). "The Relationship of Nivkh to Chukotko-Kamchatkan Revisited". Lingua. 121 (8): 1359–1376. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001.
  12. ↑ "Amur Nivkh". Glottolog.
  13. ↑ Nikolaev, Sergei L. (2015). "Toward the Reconstruction of Proto-Algonquian-Wakashan. Part 1: Proof of The Algonquian-Wakashan Relationship". Journal of Language Relationship. 13 (1): 23–61. doi:10.31826/jlr-2015-131-206.
  14. ↑ Nikolaev, Sergei L. (2016). "Toward the Reconstruction of Proto-Algonquian-Wakashan. Part 2: Algonquian-Wakashan Sound Correspondences". Journal of Language Relationship. 13 (4): 289–328. doi:10.31826/jlr-2016-133-408.
  15. ↑ Mattissen, Johanna (2001). "Nivkh". Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present. New York: H.W. Wilson. p. 515. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2.
  16. ↑ Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
  17. ↑ Hudson, Mark J.; Robbeets, Martine (2020). "Archaeolinguistic Evidence for the Farming/Language Dispersal of Koreanic". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2. e52. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.49. PMC 10427439. PMID 37588366.
  18. ↑ "원시한반도어(原始韓半島語) - 한국민족문화대백과사전". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Retrieved 2019-09-18.
  19. ↑ Janhunen, Juha (2016). "Reconstructio externa linguae Ghiliacorum". Studia Orientalia. 117: 3–27. Retrieved 15 May 2020. p. 8.
  20. 1 2 Ivanov, S.; Levin, M.; Smolyak, A. V. (1964). "The Nikvhi". The Peoples of Siberia. Chicago: The University of Chicago.
  21. 1 2 Reid, Anne (2002). "The Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta". The Shaman's Coat: A Native History of Siberia. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-8027-1399-8.
  22. ↑ Grant, Bruce (1995). In the Soviet House of Culture: A Century of Perestroikas. Princeton University Press.
  23. 1 2 3 Juha Janhunen & Ekaterina Gruzdeva (2016) Bringing the orthography of an indigenous language to the digital age: The case of Nivkh in the Russian Far East. Proceedings of the SCRIPTA 2016, Seoul.
  24. 1 2 3 Shiraishi, Hidetoshi (2000). "Nivkh Consonant Alternation Does Not Involve Hardening" (PDF). Journal of Chiba University Eurasian Society (3): 89–119. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
  25. ↑ Botma, Bert; Shiraishi, Hidetoshi (2014). "Nivkh palatalisation : articulatory causes and perceptual effects". Cambridge University Press. 31: 3.
  26. ↑ Shiraishi, Hidetoshi (2006). Topics in Nivkh Phonology (PhD thesis). University of Groningen.
  27. ↑ Mattissen, Johanna (2003). Dependent-Head Synthesis in Nivkh: A Contribution to a Typology of Polysynthesis. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 85–86. ISBN 9027229651.
  28. ↑ "Nivkh language, alphabet and pronunciation". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 2025-12-07.
  29. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.16.
  30. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.40.
  31. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.16.
  32. ↑ Gruzdeva, Ekaterina (2000). "Aspects of Russian-Nivkh Grammatical Interference: The Nivkh Imperative". Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics. 28: 121–134. JSTOR 40997157.
  33. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.13.
  34. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.16.
  35. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.16.
  36. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.28.
  37. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, pp.16-17.
  38. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.49.
  39. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.17.
  40. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.17.
  41. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.18.
  42. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.19.
  43. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.19.
  44. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.19.
  45. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.20.
  46. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.20.
  47. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.21.
  48. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.21.
  49. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.29.
  50. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.40.
  51. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.32.
  52. ↑ Nejalkov, Vladimir & Galina Otaina. (2013). A Syntax of the Nivkh Language: The Amur Dialect. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. p.102.
  53. ↑ Nejalkov & Otaina 2013, p.107.
  54. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.29.
  55. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.45.
  56. ↑ Gruzdeva, Ekaterina. (2022). “Possessive and caritive in Nivkh.” International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics. 4: p.7.
  57. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.33.
  58. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.29.
  59. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, pp.29-30.
  60. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.32.
  61. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.32.
  62. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.33.
  63. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, pp.33-34.
  64. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.34.
  65. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.40.
  66. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.35.
  67. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.35.
  68. ↑ Nejalkov & Otaina 2013, p.40.
  69. ↑ Nejalkov & Otaina 2013, p.41.
  70. ↑ Nejalkov & Otaina 2013, p.39.
  71. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.30.
  72. ↑ Gruzdeva, Ekaterina. (2020). “Demonstratives in Nivkh.” Studia Orientalia Electronica. 1: p.1.
  73. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, pp.25-26.
  74. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.28.
  75. ↑ Gruzdeva 1998, p.27.
  76. ↑ Vovin, Alexander (2016). "On the Linguistic Prehistory of Hokkaidō". In Gruzdeva, Ekaterina; Janhunen, Juha (eds.). Crosslinguistics and Linguistic Crossings in Northeast Asia: Papers on the Languages of Sakhalin and Adjacent Regions. Helsinki: Helsinki Area and Language Studies Initiative. pp. 29–38. ISBN 978-951-9380-89-6.
  77. 1 2 3 Gruzdeva, Ekaterina; Bugaeva, Anna (2021). "A unique linguistic text in Nivkh by A. A. Yushkina" (PDF). Journal of Ainu and Indigenous Studies.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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